Microcalorimetry Microcalorimetry is the calorimetry(is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes) of small samples, specifically microgram samples (or thereabouts). In other word, Microcalorimetry is a versatile technique for studying these thermal activities in terms of heat, heat flow and heat capacity. Microcalorimetry can be completely nondestructive and non-invasive to the sample. It seldom requires any prior sample treatment nor does it limit analysis to a physical state of the sample. Solids, liquids and gases can all be investigated. Microcalorimetry does not require a sample that has a particular characteristic to enable measurement like FTIR, UV-VIS, NMR, etc. Inventor • Valerian Plotnikov, the father of microcalorimetry technology. • Albert Tian on his 91st birthday (in 1971), 50 years after his invention of heat-flow microcalorimetry Parts of Microcalorimeter A microcalorimeter is basically a thermal device made of an absorber, a thermistor, and a heat sink. The absorber must do 3 things: absorb X-rays from space efficiently, quickly, completely convert the absorbed energy into heat (thermalize the energy), and have a low heat capacity. There is no material known which excels at all 3 of these properties, so choosing the absorber material involves deciding on the best combination of them. A thermistor is a device that changes its electrical resistance dramatically with a small change in temperature. Since a thermometer is any device that measures temperature, a thermistor is a kind of thermometer. The combination of the absorber and the thermistor is called "X-ray detector". The heat sink is what absorbs heat from the detector, keeping it cool. In the case of a recently designed XRS, the heat sink used to keep the detector cool enough to work was a refridgeration unit called the Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR). An ADR uses the magnetic properties of molecules in the "salt pill" to cool the detector to 60 milliKelvin (or 0.06 degrees above absolute zero). Mechanism of Microcalorimeter An X-ray photon hits the absorber and knocks an electron loose from an atom of the absorber material. This photoelectron (so-called because a photon of light knocked it loose) rattles around in the absorber, ultimately raising the temperature of the absorber by a few milliKelvin (that is, a few thousandths of one degree Kelvin). The temperature-sensitive thermistor is partially isolated from the absorber, to give the absorber time to come into equilibrium before the thermistor begins to see the temperature rise. After a few milliseconds, the thermistor comes to the same temperature as the absorber, a few milliKelvin warmer than the heat sink, which is at 65 milliKelvin. We know it's a little strange to be talking about 'heat' when something is near absolute zero! Next, the thermistor begins to cool as the heat flows out the weak link (the "legs" of the detector) to the heat sink. After a few tens of milliseconds, the thermistor has returned to its normal operating temperature. The temperature rise (delta T) measured by the thermistor is approximately proportional to the energy of the X-ray photon: delta T ~ E/C Where, delta T is the change in temperature, E is the energy of the X-ray and C is the heat capacity of the absorber. So by measuring how much the temperature changes, we can determine the energy of the X-ray. Use Microcalorimetry uses a suite of techniques to directly measure enthalpy and heat capacity changes that arise when chemical reactions occur. In aqueous solutions, heat flux into or out of the sample almost always happens on reaction. These reactions may involve a wide variety of situations, e.g., the interaction of two molecules (such as a cyclodextrin and its guest), changes in the conformation of complex macromolecules (such as proteins or DNA), or even in the structure of very complex multimolecular colloidal drug delivery systems (such as liposomes). Microcalorimeter is the a Better Way to Detect X-ray Photons In proportional counters and CCDs, the energy of the X-ray photon is shared among many electrons. Each of these electrons end up carrying a typical amount of energy, 3.65 eV in the case of the silicon-based CCDs. These electrons are then collected and counted by the electronics, and it's the number of the detected electrons that indicates the energy of the X-ray photon in a CCD detector system. An 3.65 keV X-ray photon, for example, will produce 1,000 electrons --- give or take. There is an uncertainty in the number, because the details of the X-ray - matter interaction is different each time, giving a slightly different amount of energy to each electron. The uncertainty can be estimated by taking the square root of the number of electrons --- 30 or so in this case, so the X-ray energy can be determined to an accuracy of 30/1000 ~ 3%. This is a fundamental limit of X-ray detectors that use conversion to electric charges. If you want a higher spectral resolution --- and astrophysicists always do --- you have to choose a detector that relies on a completely different principle, such as a microcalorimeter. As a result of its different approach, the microcalorimeter provides 10x better spectral resolution for detecting emission lines of iron.

Microcalorimetry Microcalorimetry is the calorimetry(is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes) of small samples, specifically microgram samples (or thereabouts). In other word, Microcalorimetry is a versatile technique for studying these thermal activities in terms of heat, heat flow and heat capacity. Microcalorimetry can be completely nondestructive and non-invasive to the sample. It seldom requires any prior sample treatment nor does it limit analysis to a physical state of the sample. Solids, liquids and gases can all be investigated. Microcalorimetry does not require a sample that has a particular characteristic to enable measurement like FTIR, UV-VIS, NMR, etc. Inventor • Valerian Plotnikov, the father of microcalorimetry technology. • Albert Tian on his 91st birthday (in 1971), 50 years after his invention of heat-flow microcalorimetry Parts of Microcalorimeter A microcalorimeter is basically a thermal device made of an absorber, a thermistor, and a heat sink. The absorber must do 3 things: absorb X-rays from space efficiently, quickly, completely convert the absorbed energy into heat (thermalize the energy), and have a low heat capacity. There is no material known which excels at all 3 of these properties, so choosing the absorber material involves deciding on the best combination of them. A thermistor is a device that changes its electrical resistance dramatically with a small change in temperature. Since a thermometer is any device that measures temperature, a thermistor is a kind of thermometer. The combination of the absorber and the thermistor is called "X-ray detector". The heat sink is what absorbs heat from the detector, keeping it cool. In the case of a recently designed XRS, the heat sink used to keep the detector cool enough to work was a refridgeration unit called the Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR). An ADR uses the magnetic properties of molecules in the "salt pill" to cool the detector to 60 milliKelvin (or 0.06 degrees above absolute zero). Mechanism of Microcalorimeter An X-ray photon hits the absorber and knocks an electron loose from an atom of the absorber material. This photoelectron (so-called because a photon of light knocked it loose) rattles around in the absorber, ultimately raising the temperature of the absorber by a few milliKelvin (that is, a few thousandths of one degree Kelvin). The temperature-sensitive thermistor is partially isolated from the absorber, to give the absorber time to come into equilibrium before the thermistor begins to see the temperature rise. After a few milliseconds, the thermistor comes to the same temperature as the absorber, a few milliKelvin warmer than the heat sink, which is at 65 milliKelvin. We know it's a little strange to be talking about 'heat' when something is near absolute zero! Next, the thermistor begins to cool as the heat flows out the weak link (the "legs" of the detector) to the heat sink. After a few tens of milliseconds, the thermistor has returned to its normal operating temperature. The temperature rise (delta T) measured by the thermistor is approximately proportional to the energy of the X-ray photon: delta T ~ E/C Where, delta T is the change in temperature, E is the energy of the X-ray and C is the heat capacity of the absorber. So by measuring how much the temperature changes, we can determine the energy of the X-ray. Use Microcalorimetry uses a suite of techniques to directly measure enthalpy and heat capacity changes that arise when chemical reactions occur. In aqueous solutions, heat flux into or out of the sample almost always happens on reaction. These reactions may involve a wide variety of situations, e.g., the interaction of two molecules (such as a cyclodextrin and its guest), changes in the conformation of complex macromolecules (such as proteins or DNA), or even in the structure of very complex multimolecular colloidal drug delivery systems (such as liposomes). Microcalorimeter is the a Better Way to Detect X-ray Photons In proportional counters and CCDs, the energy of the X-ray photon is shared among many electrons. Each of these electrons end up carrying a typical amount of energy, 3.65 eV in the case of the silicon-based CCDs. These electrons are then collected and counted by the electronics, and it's the number of the detected electrons that indicates the energy of the X-ray photon in a CCD detector system. An 3.65 keV X-ray photon, for example, will produce 1,000 electrons --- give or take. There is an uncertainty in the number, because the details of the X-ray - matter interaction is different each time, giving a slightly different amount of energy to each electron. The uncertainty can be estimated by taking the square root of the number of electrons --- 30 or so in this case, so the X-ray energy can be determined to an accuracy of 30/1000 ~ 3%. This is a fundamental limit of X-ray detectors that use conversion to electric charges. If you want a higher spectral resolution --- and astrophysicists always do --- you have to choose a detector that relies on a completely different principle, such as a microcalorimeter. As a result of its different approach, the microcalorimeter provides 10x better spectral resolution for detecting emission lines of iron.

Water means life

Water is called Life Water is a colorless, transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid that forms the seas, lakes, rivers, and rain and is the basis of the fluids of living organisms. Water is a chemical substance among the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule includes one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms attached by covalent bonds. Water is be presents in a liquid crystal state near hydrophilic surfaces. Fresh water is mainly called life Type of water There are many type of water Hard Water This is saturated with calcium, iron, magnesium, and many other inorganic minerals. All water in lakes, rivers, on the ground, in deep wells, is classified as hard water. (Many city systems take water from rivers or lakes, or reservoirs supplied with mountain water; they erroneously call their supplies "soft water" but it is soft only in comparison with water which is harder.) Boiled Water Boiling helps eliminate some of the germs, but concentrates the inorganic minerals. Other germs are carried into a fertile element for rapid and lusty propagation of germs and viruses already in the body. Raw Water This has not been boiled. Raw water may be hard (as calcium hardened water) or soft as rain water. It contains millions of germs and viruses. In every densely inhabited drop. Some of these viruses and bacteria may adversely affect the thyroid gland, the liver and other vital body organs. Rain Water This has been condensed from the clouds. The first drop is distilled water. But when it falls as rain, it picks up germs, dust, smoke, minerals, strontium 90, lead and many other atmospheric chemicals. By the time rain water reaches the earth it is so saturated with dust and pollutants it may be yellowish in color. Water is supposed to act as an atmosphere purifier. If we had no air pollution, we would have far less pollution in our drinking water. Snow Water This is frozen rain. Freezing does not eliminate any germs. All snowflakes have hardened mineral deposits. Melt the cleanest snow and you will find it saturated with dirt, inorganic minerals, germs and viruses. Filtered Water Filtered Water. This water has passed through a fine strainer, called a filter. Some calcium and other solid substances are kept in the filter; there is no filter made which can prevent germs from passing through its fine meshes. Each pore of the finest filter is large enough for a million viruses to seep through in a few moments. A home filter usually only picks up suspended solids and is effective for the time, maybe only for hours, until it is filled up. Then it is ineffective even for removing suspended solids, and at the same time becomes a breeding ground for bacteria. Soft Water Soft Water. This water is soft in comparison with water which is harder. It may contain many trace minerals and chemicals, viruses and bacteria. It is not to be confused with "softened water." Soft water may be classified as water which is harder than distilled water. De-ionized Water De-ionized Water. A process of exchanging "hard" ions for "soft." The total ions are still present. The end result is the same. But the water has the appearance of being distilled. (Nature recognizes transformation but not extinction!) Since water leaving the sodium-cation exchanger has little hardness, it contains sodium salts. Distilled Water Distilled Water. This is water that has first been turned into steam so that all of its impurities are left behind. Then through condensation, it is turned back into pure water. It is the only pure water. The only water free from all contamination. Distilled water may well be considered the only pure water on earth. Water is so valuable to the entire system of the human body that it is wise to use only the Best. Use pure steam distilled water for health and well being.

Tamper resistant packaging

Introduction: Packaging is a very important marketing strategy to glamorize product in order to attract the consumer’s attention. Sometimes packaging is so important that it cost more than the product itself in order to lure the consumers to buy it. Packaging should definitely be included in the 4 major P’s of marketing (product, place, promotion and price). Most consumers judge a product by its packaging before buying. So it is logical to say attractive packaging is crucial in order to get the first time buyers to buy products. Without attractive packaging, manufacturer’s first step to enter the market is crushed if the packaging is ugly. Having attractive packaging doesn’t mean manufacturers should neglect quality either. In fact, it is necessary to make high quality products in order to have repeated sales. Converting first time buyers into loyal customers should be the main goal of business and packaging is the door to it. What is packaging? Packaging is the science, art, and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells. Package labeling is any written, electronic, or graphic communications on the packaging or on a separate but associated label. Package development considerations: Package design and development are integral part of the new product development process. Alternatively, development of a package can be a separate process, but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged. Package design starts with the identification of the following requirements: structural design marketing shelf life quality assurance logistics legal regulatory graphic design end-use environmental, etc. Packaging engineers need to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intended shelf life with normal usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to be validated to comply with regulations and have the well being of the consumer in mind. Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory. For example, regulations for an over-the-counter drug might require the package to be tamper-evident and child resistant. These intentionally make the package difficult to open. Tamper resistant packaging: Tamper resistance is resistance to tampering by either the normal users of a product, package, or system or others with physical access to it. There are many reasons for employing tamper resistance. Tamper resistance ranges from simple features like screws with special heads, more complex devices need special tools and knowledge. Tamper-resistant devices or features are common on packages to deter package or product tampering. In some applications, devices are only tamper-evident rather than tamper-resistant. Tamper-evident describes a device or process that makes unauthorized access to the protected object easily detected. Seals, markings or other techniques may be tamper indicating. Safety: Nearly all mains appliances and accessories can be opened with the use of a screwdriver (or a substitute item such as a nail file or kitchen knife). This prevents children and others who are careless or unaware of the dangers of opening the equipment from doing so and hurting themselves (from electrical shocks, burns or cuts, for example) or damaging the equipment. Sometimes (especially in order to avoid litigation), manufacturers go further and use tamper-resistant screws, which cannot be unfastened with standard equipment. Tamper-resistant screws are also used on electrical fittings in many public buildings primarily to reduce tampering or vandalism that may cause a danger to others. Packaging: Resistance to tampering can be built in or added to packaging. Examples include: Extra layers of packaging (no single layer or component is "tamper-proof") Packaging that requires tools to enter Extra-strong and secure packaging Packages that cannot be resealed Tamper-evident seals and features The tamper resistance of packaging can be evaluated by consultants and experts in the subject. Also, comparisons of various packages can be made by careful field testing of the lay public. Why tamper resistant packaging is needed? Psychologists called the killer so strange that their normal guidelines "just don't work." And now, more than 26 years after Tylenol capsules laced with potassium cyanide killed seven people in the Chicago area, the Tylenol murders still have enough people scratching their heads that the FBI reopened the case and is taking a fresh look at old suspects. The murders started in September 1982, when the parents of Mary Kellerman gave the 12-year-old a painkiller when she woke up complaining of a cold. She died hours later. Postal worker Adam Janus died in another Chicago suburb later that morning. Janus' brother and his brother's wife, complaining of headaches while mourning Adam, died too. In a few days the death toll grew — the only link being that each victim had taken Extra-Strength Tylenol. (See the top 10 unsolved crimes.) On testing, each of the capsules proved to be laced with potassium cyanide at a level toxic enough to provide thousands of fatal doses. Police were baffled — the pills came from different production plants and were sold in different drug stores around the Chicago area. Their conclusion was that someone was most likely tampering with the drug on the store shelves. The deaths set off a nationwide panic, as stores rushed to remove Tylenol from their shelves and worried consumers overwhelmed hospitals and poison control hotlines. Chicago police went through the streets with loudspeakers, warning residents of the dangers of taking Tylenol. Johnson & Johnson, the drug's manufacturer, spent millions of dollars recalling the pills from stores. The tampering inspired hundreds of copycat incidents across the U.S. The Food and Drug Administration tallied more than 270 different incidents of product tampering in the month following the Tylenol deaths. Pills tainted with everything from rat poison to hydrochloric acid sickened people around the country. Some copycats expanded to food tampering: that Halloween, parents reported finding sharp pins concealed in candy corn and candy bars. Some communities banned trick-or-treating all together. Police never arrested anyone for the original Tylenol murders, but tax consultant James Lewis wrote a letter to Tylenol's manufacturer in October 1982 demanding $1 million to "stop the killings." Lewis had a strange past. He had been charged with a 1978 Kansas City murder after police found the remains of one of his former clients in bags in his attic; charges were dropped after a judge ruled that the police search of Lewis' home was illegal. But police could never tie him to the Tylenol killings and he denied committing them. Lewis was convicted of extortion for the letter and spent more than 12 years in federal prison. Richard Brzeczek, the Chicago police superintendent at the time, said it was unlikely Lewis would ever be prosecuted for the killings themselves. But when the FBI reopened their investigation in early February, the focus shifted back to Lewis. His Cambridge, Mass. office was searched as well as a storage unit he had rented nearby. The FBI has been tightlipped about the reason for the search and has not named Lewis in conjunction with the reopened investigation. Police still have some of the tainted Tylenol capsules from the original killings and are hopeful some DNA can be recovered from the pills for testing. The killings did have a measurable, positive impact, however: a revolution in product safety standards. In the wake of the Tylenol poisonings, pharmaceutical and food industries dramatically improved their packaging, instituting tamperproof seals and indicators and increasing security controls during the manufacturing process. The result has been a dramatic reduction in the number of copycat incidents — although it may be of little solace to the families of the seven killed in Chicago. But now, as the FBI brings modern technology to bear on a case long gone cold, perhaps they can hope again for something else tangible: at long last, some criminal charges. Fig: Tylenol capsules are removed from the shelves of a drug store after reports of tampering in February of 1986. In response to the September 1982 cyanide poisonings in Chicago, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued tamper resistant packaging requirements for all over-the-counter (OTC) drug products and certain cosmetic products. The OTC drug products that are covered by these regulations include oral, nasal, ophthalmic, rectal and vaginal drug products. Child-resistant packaging: Child-resistant packaging or C-R packaging is special packaging used to reduce the risk of children ingesting dangerous items. This is often accomplished by the use of a special safety cap. It is required by regulation for prescription drugs, over-the-counter medications, pesticides, and household chemicals. In some jurisdictions, unit packaging such as blister packs is also regulated for child safety. e.g – push and screw caps peel-off and push through blister package Difficulty opening: Child-resistant packaging can be a problem for some aged individuals or people with disabilities. Regulations require designs to be tested to verify that most adults can access the package. Some jurisdictions allow pharmacists to provide medications in non C-R packages when there are no children in the same house. Requirements: The regulations are based on protocols of performance tests of packages with actual children, to determine if the packages can be opened. More recently, additional package testing is used to determine if aged individuals or people with disabilities have the ability to open the same packages. Often the C-R requirements are met by package closures which require two dissimilar motions for opening. Hundreds of package designs are available for packagers to consider. Film wrappers – Transparent: A transparent film with distinctive design is wrapped securely around the entire product container ensuring the product is completely sealed and a secure tight fit is achieved. The wrapper must be ripped or broken to gain access to the product. Sealing of a film wrapper with overlapping end flaps is acceptable only if the ends cannot be opened and released without leaving visible evidence of entry. A secure tight film may be achieved by a heat shrink type process or other means. Film bags: Transparent cellulose, film front paper back, and polypropylene bags in various formats to provide more information and samples. Formats include: Flush-cut bag with lip Bag with flap Bag with flap and self-seal strip Bags with bottom gusset Bags with internal captive flap – pillow Pack Eurotabs and Moulded Hooks can be supplied to hang these bags on display. Boxes: Transparent boxes in PVC with lids Transparent boxes in PVC - side opening Tubes in PVC Sheets cut to size: Film sheet cut to size Fig: PVC film for pharmaceutical packaging Rolls: Film rolls - display packaging in roll format for individual packaging and presentation Pack labeling: It includes labels, security hologram stickers, warranty seals, tamper-proof authentication products, high end labels and general purpose labels. It provides security to the potential problem of someone tampering with the product before it gets to the end user. Apply a small label onto the closure system of the bottle Apply a label onto the carton Apply tape onto the shipping box Blister packs: Blister pack is a term for several types of pre-formed plastic packaging used for small consumer goods, foods, and for pharmaceuticals. The primary component of a blister pack is a cavity or pocket made from a formable web, usually a thermoformed plastic. This usually has a backing of paperboard or a lidding seal of aluminum foil or plastic. A blister that folds onto itself is often called a clamshell. Blister packs are commonly used as unit-dose packaging for pharmaceutical tablets, capsules or lozenges. Blister packs can provide barrier protection for shelf life requirements, and a degree of tamper resistance. The difference between strip and blister is that strip doesn't have thermo-formed or cold-pressed cavities. The cavity is formed around the piece of product at a time when it's dropped to the sealing area between sealing moulds. In some parts of the world the blister pack is known as a Push-Through-Pack (PTP). The main advantages of unit-dose blister packs over other methods of packing pharmaceutical products are the assurance of product/packaging integrity (including shelf life) of each individual dose and the possibility to create a compliance pack or calendar pack by printing the days of the week above each dose. Blister packs also hinder the use of OTC drugs in the manufacture of illegal drugs. Bubble pack: The product and container are sealed in a plastic bubble and mounted in or on a display card. The plastic and / or card must be ripped or broken to gain access to the product. The backing material cannot be separated from the bubble or replaced without leaving visible evidence of entry. Bubble pack seals must be intact and complete and sealed all the way around. Pouches and sachets: Pouches: Flat Pouches: Flat pouches also known as pillow packs are widely used for office and restaurant service. Ground coffee or powdered mixes can be packed in it. Available in multiple solid colors for easy sorting of different blends or flavors. Stand-Up Pouches: Zip lock feature is available. Instead of a photograph, you can show the actual color, shape and size of the coffee, tea or whatever item you wish to place inside. That’s advertising and packaging in one! Sachets: It is a disposable one time use package. Induction sealing: Induction sealing, otherwise known as cap sealing, is a non-contact method of heating a metallic disk to hermetically seal the top of plastic and glass containers. This sealing process takes place after the container has been filled and capped. Leak prevention/protection: A common application for flat sealing heads are to seal containers in the food and beverage industry to prevent leaks and extend shelf life. Some shipping companies require liquid chemical products to be sealed prior to shipping to prevent hazardous chemicals from spilling on other shipments. Freshness: Induction sealing keeps unwanted pollutants from seeping into food products, and may assist in extending shelf life of certain products. Pilferage protection: Induction-sealed containers help prevent the product from being broken into by leaving a noticeable residue from the liner itself. Pharmaceutical companies purchase liners that will purposely leave liner film/foil residue on bottles. Food companies that use induction seals do not want the liner residue as it could potentially interfere with the product itself upon dispensing. They, in turn, put a notice on the product that it has been induction-sealed for their protection; letting the consumer know there was a liner on the plastic bottle prior to purchase. Sustainability: In some applications, induction sealing can be considered to contribute towards sustainability goals by allowing lower bottle weights as the pack relies on the presence of an induction foil seal for its security, rather than a mechanically strong bottle neck and closure. Pre-filled syringe: A plastic prefilled syringe (10) including a syringe body (11) and a plunger assembly (12), the syringe body (11) having opposed first (13) and second (14) ends and an inner wall (16) defining a cylindrical chamber (15) which contains an injectable solution (100), the first end (13) of the syringe body (11) being sealed by a closure and the second end (14) incorporating an opening (18), the plunger assembly (12) including a plunger shaft (22) extending through said opening (18) and a stopper (24) secured at an end of said shaft (22) within said chamber, the plunger assembly (12) being movable within the chamber with the stopper (24) being operable to seal the opening (18) wherein the plunger assembly (12) includes barrier means (26 and 29) on said shaft (22) the barrier means (26 and 29) being adapted, in conjunction with a part of the syringe body (16 and 19), to inhibit access to the injectable solution (100) through the opening (18). Conclusion: The fight against counterfeiting, tampering and diversion of pharmaceuticals is a global and complex challenge. No doubt, the traditional definition of drug safety has acquired the additional dimension of drug security-or more precisely, security of the supply chain and custody of the chain. Only a cross-functional and integrated approach can be successful in defeating counterfeiting and fraud as well as the diversion of pharmaceutical products. The use of security technologies in packaging does not prevent counterfeiting. Instead, it primarily supports product authentication, provides an indication of a drug's purity and allows the supply chain to be tracked. This enables pharmaceutical companies to raise the hurdle for criminals and to protect their most valuable assets: customer health, confidence and satisfaction.