The exploration of microbes in space
In the current search for extraterrestrial life, imagine the day scientists discover life on a new planet. Then imagine finding out that those life forms actually originated on Earth.
With every spacecraft that leaves Earth, millions of microbes try to hitch a ride into outer space. NASA hopes to launch a Mars Sample Return Mission in the future, and preventing cross-contamination of Mars and the Earth in such a mission would be a top priority.
Watchful From the Start
Back contamination was the main concern when the planetary protection program primary began. After the Soviet Union commenced space exploration with the launching of the first Earth satellite Sputnik in 1957, the International Council for Science recognized the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) to support international space research. One of its responsibilities was the planetary protection program.
The 1967 Outer Space Treaty formally outlined global guidelines for any nation engaging in space exploration. It stated that any activities in outer space, including the moon and other planetary bodies, must be carried out in a manner that avoids biological contamination.
Though the scientific community is expected to act responsibly in exploring new frontiers, Larry Esposito, professor of astrophysical and planetary sciences at the University of Colorado, Boulder, feels that back contamination is ultimately more important.
“The greatest dangers are back contamination even though the probability might be lower,” says Esposito. “The fact is that we're living on the Earth and determining our livelihoods, and we're part of the ecological (system), which could potentially be affected by back contamination.”
In current times, frontward contamination also has become a main concern, particularly with the exploration of Mars and the potential for finding life there.
In March of this year, astronauts on the International Space Station conducted the LOCAD-PTS Exploration experiment, the first test of planetary protection technology. This involved swabbing the astronauts’ gloves with a high-tech Q-tip and testing that Q-tip for microbes. The astronauts found almost no bacteria but they found glucan, a marker for fungi, at 15 sites.
Verification of Life
Even with the rigorous cleaning procedures currently in place, millions of microbes still get launched from Earth. “When searching for life, we don't want to have a false positive,” explains Esposito. “That would puzzle identification of life on another planet or location.”
For identification of potential alien life, NASA has an inventory of samples collected on previous missions (like Viking) to which new life forms can be compared. Conley says current DNA-based testing methods allow scientists to rule out the possibility that extraterrestrial life forms did not create on Earth. This means that scientists expect alien life to have DNA different from any known organism on Earth (if they have DNA at all).
As astrobiologists continue the quest for life in other worlds, safeguarding the environment here on Earth and elsewhere in the universe remains a main concern.
“We're concerned about life everywhere, and we don't want to pollute or invade other locations with Earth life,” says Esposito. “In the same way, we don't want to infect life on Earth with species from other planets.”
Wednesday, March 28, 2012
The Narcotics Control Act 1990
The Narcotics Control Act 1990:
The Narcotics Control Act, 1990 was passed in 1990 by repealing all previous laws for control of narcotics, treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts. The government has enacted the Narcotics Control Act, 1990 as amended in 2000, 2002 and 2004 in order to update the law.
Features of the Narcotics Control Act, 1990:
The Narcotics Control Act, 1990 (as amended in 2000, 2002 and 2004) has got the following salient features reflecting the growing needs for effective encounter against drug smuggling on the one hand and corroborating on the other the international efforts to contain this problem.
1. The Narcotics Control Act. 1990 came into force on 2nd January, 1990.
2. It is a special law having predominance over other laws in respect of its ambit and jurisdiction on drugs and drug related issues.
3. Interception of illicit drug trafficking through law enforcement, control of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances used in medical, industrial and scientific purposes coupled with treatment and rehabilitation of the drug addicts underlie the propriety of this law.
4. It provides legal coverage for establishment of the Department of Narcotics Control (DNC) as the Nodal Agency of the government to fulfill the objectives of the law in question. It also provides the legal basis for formation of the National Narcotics Control Board (NNCB) as the highest policy-making body of the government for formulating necessary policies and strategies to combat drag problem in the country.
5. The Narcotics Control Act. 1990 empowers not only the Department of Narcotics Control but also the other agencies of the government like the Police, the BDR (the border security force), the Customs and the Coastguard for drug enforcement activities.
6. Further the law provides for mutual cooperation among the different law enforcement agencies as and when required for conduct of search, seizure and arrests.
7. The law introduces an effective licensing system for controlling import, export, manufacturing, processing, distribution, sale, transport, possession and use of licit narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursor chemicals. The Narcotics Control Rules, 1999 is the legal instrument for carrying out the licensing provisions enshrined in the law.
8. This law prescribes deterrent punishment for various categories of drug offences as well as for breach of the conditions of the licenses issued under the law.
9.The law prescribes the highest penalty of death sentence for the offenders accused of possessing either heroin or cocaine or cocaine derivatives exceeding the quantity of 25 grams. Similarly the illegal possession of pethidine or morphine or possession of tetra-hydro-canabinal exceeding the quantity of 10 grams renders the offender or offenders concerned liable to death sentence or life-long imprisonment. Death sentence has also been prescribed for certain other drug offences of serious nature (Section 19 of the law).
10.The law takes the wisdom of the three major UN Conventions and the SAARC Convention on narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances particularly in regard to forfeiture of sale proceeds of illegal drug business, freezing of bank accounts and properties, sending of juvenile offenders to the correction centre in lieu of imprisonment, inclusion of the controlled delivery technique, compulsory maintenance of accounts of licit drugs by the license holders, incorporation of the 22 precursor chemicals and so on.
11.The law provides the legal basis for the Chemical Laboratory of the Department of Narcotics Control and its proper functioning in respect of forensic analysis of all seized drugs and suspicious substances. This lab, established in Dhaka, caters to the needs of all the agencies charged with the responsibilities of drug enforcement and thereby it plays an important role in quick disposal of drug cases under trial.
12.The amendment of 2000 to the law brings about the government first foray into the control of precursor chemicals from drug control point of view.
13.An amendment of 2002 has introduced the minimum time limit of 15 days for completion of investigation of drug cases filed under this law.
14.Another amendment in 2004 redefines alcohol by reducing the lowest limit of alcoholic strength from 5% to only 0.5%. Any liquid preparation containing more than 0.5% alcohol shall fall within the purview of the law. This amendment is intended for safeguarding our young generations from the clutches of the so called energy (alcoholic) drinks and their bad impacts.
15.The law has got 61 Sections in all. It has got two Schedules of which the first schedule lists the narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances including the 22 precursor chemicals. The second schedule on the other hand lays down the rates of excise duties to be imposed on the domestically produced liquor and alcoholic spirit.
16.The law is a unique combination of legal provisions comprising violation sections, penal sections, hybrid sections (prescribing violation and punishment together), modus operandi sections and administrative sections.
17.Adorned with the foregoing features, the Narcotics Control Act. 1990 (as amended in 2000, 2002 and 2004) stands to be adequate and enabling enough to meet the challenge of the time.
Establishment of the National Intoxicants Control Board:
The Board shall consist of the following members, namely:-
• (a) one Chairman nominated by the Government;
(b) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of External Affairs;
(c) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Internal Affairs;
(d) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Health;
(e) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Education;
(f) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Information;
(g) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Public Welfare and Women;
(h) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Finance; (i) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Planning;
(j) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Local Government;
(k) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Religion;
(l) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Youth and Sports;
(m) secretary, Law Ministry;
(n) a reputed servant of society nominated by the Government;
(o) a reputed humanitarian nominated by the Government;
(p) a reputed intellectual nominated by the Government;
(q) a reputed journalist nominated by the Government;
(r) a reputed doctor or psychologist nominated by the Government;
(s) the supervisor who shall also be the secretary of the Board.
Intoxicants of the category A
1) Opium Poppy or sticky substances derived thereof.
2) Any refined, unrefined or prepared opium or any substance prepared with the help of opium.
3) Opium derivatives like Morphine, Codeine, Thebeine, Noscapine, Narcotine, Papavarine etc. and their salts.
4) Any substance containing more than 0, 2 percent Morphine.
5) Any intoxicant having the properties of Opium and fabricated with unnatural means like Pethidine, Meperdine, Methadone, Dextromoramide, Dihydrocodeine, Meperdine Fentanyl, Pentazocaine, Hydromorphine, Omnopone, Alphaprodine, Demeral, Oxycodone, Etrophine, Lofentanyl, Alfentanyl, Alphamethyl Fentanyl, 3-Methyl Fentanyl, Asscetrophine, Acetylmethadol, Alphacetyl-methadol, Betaprodine etc. .
6) Cocaine, or all Cocaine derivatives.
7) Any substance or any Cocaine salt containing more than 0, 1 percent Cocaine.
8) Tetrahydrocanbinal in whatever form, Cannabis resin, Charas, Hashish etc. .
9) Acetic anhydride, or any other ingredient indispensable in the production of Heroine, Morphine or Cocaine (if the acetic anhydride is found together with Heroine, Morphine or Cocaine).
10) Mescaline.
Intoxicants of the category B
1) Hemp plant, Herbal Cannabis, Bhang, Bhang plant or any substance prepared with the help of Hemp or Bhang.
2) 2) Any other plant ( except tobacco ) which can be used as an intoxicant.
3) 3) Alcohol, any kind of alcoholic liquor, rectified spirit, any medicine or liquor prepared with the help of rectified spirit, Beer, or any liquor with more than 5 % alcohol.
4) LSD, or any substance containing LSD.
5) Barbiturates or similiar substances.
6) Amphetamine, Methyl amphetamine or anything that contains Amphetamine.
7) Phencyclidine, Psilocybin, Nicocodine or anything that contains such substances.
8) Methaqualone or anything that contains Methaqualone.
Intoxicants of the category C
1) Toddy, Panjui etc. .
2) Denatured spirit or methylated spirit.
3) Chlordiazepoxied, Diazepam, Oxazepam, Lorazepam, Flurazepam, Clorozepate, Nitrazepam, Triazolam, Temazepam etc. .
4) Any sedative, tranquilizer or hypnotic medicine not mentioned under category B.
5) Any stimulant or depressive medicine not mentioned under category A or B.
9.Restriction on the production etc. of intoxicants except alcohol.
(1) It shall be interdicted to cultivate, produce, refine, carry, transport, import, export, supply, buy, sell, keep, preserve, store, exhibit or use any intoxicant except alcohol.
(2) It shall be interdicted to cultivate, produce, refine, carry, transport, import, export, supply, buy, sell, keep, preserve, store, exhibit or use any plant or substance serviceable in the production of intoxicants.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in subsection (1) and (2), where intoxicants, plants or substances referred to in the said two subsections are necessary for the production of any medicament approved under any Act, or for the carrying out of any scientific investigation, they may be-
a) produced, refined, imported, exported, supplied, bought, sold, carried, transported, stored and exhibited on the strenght of a licence granted under this Act;
b) used on the strength of a permit granted under this Act;
c) Carried or transported on the strength of a pass granted under this Act.
10. Provisions on the production etc. of alcohol.-
1) No person except a holder of a licence granted under this Act may
a) establish a distillary or brewery.
b) produce, refine, carry, transport, import, export, supply, buy, sell, keep, conserve, store, exhibit or use alcohol.
c) use alcohol as raw material in the production of medicine
2) No person except a holder of a permit granted under this Act may consume any alcohol; further shall no muslim be granted a permit to consume alcohol except that he can provide a qualifying certificate written by at least a civil surgeon or an assistant professor of the medicine depapartment of a medical college for medical reasons.
3) The qualifying certificate granted under subsection (1) shall contain the designation of the illness which necessitates the use of alcohol for its cure, as well as an attestation of the physician regarding the aforementioned necessity.
4) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, foreign citizens are allowed to consume alcohol in bars holding a licence.
5) The provisions of this section regarding the import, export, purchase, carrying, preservation or consumation of alcohol shall not apply to foreign citizens bearing a diplomatic passport, persons bearing a passbook granted by a custom officer, or persons which have been admitted in accordance with to the regular baggage rules.
11. Granting of licences etc
(1) A licence, permit or pass under this Act shall be granted, in the ways, forms, under the conditions and against the fees prescribed by law, by the Chief-Director or an officer authorized by him in this behalf.
(2) Any licence, permit or pass granted under subsection (1) shall be valid according to the term determined therein or from the date of its conferment untill the end of the current half-year.
Provided that, the provisions of this Act or the conditions of the licence not having been violated, the licence to run a laboratory, distillary or brewery may be renewed annually in exchange for fee.
12. Restrictions on the granting of licenses etc.
01. Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, no person shall be considered qualified for receiving a licence or permit under this Act, if
a) he has been convicted for a criminal offence involving moral turpitude and sentenced to imprisonment for a period of no less than three month and not been released within the last three years, or to a fine of no less than five hundred Takas and since the recovery of the fine three years have not yet passed;
b) he has been sentenced by a court for an offence under this Act.
c) he has violated the conditions of a licence or permit under this Act and the licence or permit referred to has, therefore, been declared invalid.
(2)Whoever cultivates intoxicants of the category A shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend from two to fifteen years and shall also be liable to fine.
(3) Whoever cultivates intoxicants of the categories A and B shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend from two to ten years and shall also be liable to fine.
(4) Whoever is guilty of an offence listed in the table of subsection (1) except serial number 11 shall be liable to fine in addition to the punishment provided for in that list.
(5) Whoever, after being convicted for an offence mentioned in this section and serving the sentence, again commits an offence under this section shall, not having been sentenced to death or lifelong imprisonment, be sentenced to twice the maximum punishment assigned to that offence.
2. Rules and Regulations for controlling poisons
Power of the State Government to regulate possession for sale and sale of any poison.
1) The State Government may by rule regulate within the whole or any part of the territories under its administration the possession for sale and the sale, whether wholesale or retail, of any specified poison.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for-
(a) The grant of licences to possess any specified poison for sale, wholesale or retail and fixing of the fee (if any) to be charged for such licences;
(b) The classes of persons to whom alone such licences may be granted;
(c) The classes of persons to whom alone any such poison may be sold;
(d) The maximum quantity of any such poison, which may be sold to any one person;
(e) The maintenance by vendors of any such poison of registers of sales, the particulars to be entered in such registers, and the inspection of the same;
(f) The safe custody of such poisons and the labelling of the vessels, packages or coverings in which any such poison is sold possession for sale; and
(g) The inspection and examination of any such poison when possessed for sale by any such vendor.
Penalty for unlawful importation, etc
• Whoever-
(a) Commits a breach of any rule made under Section 2, or
(b) Imports without a licence into India across customs frontier defined by the Central Government any poison the importation of which is for the time being restricted under Section 3, or
(c) Breaks any condition of licence for the importation of any poison granted to him under Section 3,
Shall be punishable, -
• (i) On a first conviction, with imprisonment for a term which may, extend to three months, or with fine which may extend to five hundred rupees or with both, and
(ii) On a second or subsequent conviction, with imprisonment for a term, which may extend to six months, or with fine, which may extend to one thousand, rupees, or with both.
The Narcotics Control Act, 1990 was passed in 1990 by repealing all previous laws for control of narcotics, treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts. The government has enacted the Narcotics Control Act, 1990 as amended in 2000, 2002 and 2004 in order to update the law.
Features of the Narcotics Control Act, 1990:
The Narcotics Control Act, 1990 (as amended in 2000, 2002 and 2004) has got the following salient features reflecting the growing needs for effective encounter against drug smuggling on the one hand and corroborating on the other the international efforts to contain this problem.
1. The Narcotics Control Act. 1990 came into force on 2nd January, 1990.
2. It is a special law having predominance over other laws in respect of its ambit and jurisdiction on drugs and drug related issues.
3. Interception of illicit drug trafficking through law enforcement, control of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances used in medical, industrial and scientific purposes coupled with treatment and rehabilitation of the drug addicts underlie the propriety of this law.
4. It provides legal coverage for establishment of the Department of Narcotics Control (DNC) as the Nodal Agency of the government to fulfill the objectives of the law in question. It also provides the legal basis for formation of the National Narcotics Control Board (NNCB) as the highest policy-making body of the government for formulating necessary policies and strategies to combat drag problem in the country.
5. The Narcotics Control Act. 1990 empowers not only the Department of Narcotics Control but also the other agencies of the government like the Police, the BDR (the border security force), the Customs and the Coastguard for drug enforcement activities.
6. Further the law provides for mutual cooperation among the different law enforcement agencies as and when required for conduct of search, seizure and arrests.
7. The law introduces an effective licensing system for controlling import, export, manufacturing, processing, distribution, sale, transport, possession and use of licit narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursor chemicals. The Narcotics Control Rules, 1999 is the legal instrument for carrying out the licensing provisions enshrined in the law.
8. This law prescribes deterrent punishment for various categories of drug offences as well as for breach of the conditions of the licenses issued under the law.
9.The law prescribes the highest penalty of death sentence for the offenders accused of possessing either heroin or cocaine or cocaine derivatives exceeding the quantity of 25 grams. Similarly the illegal possession of pethidine or morphine or possession of tetra-hydro-canabinal exceeding the quantity of 10 grams renders the offender or offenders concerned liable to death sentence or life-long imprisonment. Death sentence has also been prescribed for certain other drug offences of serious nature (Section 19 of the law).
10.The law takes the wisdom of the three major UN Conventions and the SAARC Convention on narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances particularly in regard to forfeiture of sale proceeds of illegal drug business, freezing of bank accounts and properties, sending of juvenile offenders to the correction centre in lieu of imprisonment, inclusion of the controlled delivery technique, compulsory maintenance of accounts of licit drugs by the license holders, incorporation of the 22 precursor chemicals and so on.
11.The law provides the legal basis for the Chemical Laboratory of the Department of Narcotics Control and its proper functioning in respect of forensic analysis of all seized drugs and suspicious substances. This lab, established in Dhaka, caters to the needs of all the agencies charged with the responsibilities of drug enforcement and thereby it plays an important role in quick disposal of drug cases under trial.
12.The amendment of 2000 to the law brings about the government first foray into the control of precursor chemicals from drug control point of view.
13.An amendment of 2002 has introduced the minimum time limit of 15 days for completion of investigation of drug cases filed under this law.
14.Another amendment in 2004 redefines alcohol by reducing the lowest limit of alcoholic strength from 5% to only 0.5%. Any liquid preparation containing more than 0.5% alcohol shall fall within the purview of the law. This amendment is intended for safeguarding our young generations from the clutches of the so called energy (alcoholic) drinks and their bad impacts.
15.The law has got 61 Sections in all. It has got two Schedules of which the first schedule lists the narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances including the 22 precursor chemicals. The second schedule on the other hand lays down the rates of excise duties to be imposed on the domestically produced liquor and alcoholic spirit.
16.The law is a unique combination of legal provisions comprising violation sections, penal sections, hybrid sections (prescribing violation and punishment together), modus operandi sections and administrative sections.
17.Adorned with the foregoing features, the Narcotics Control Act. 1990 (as amended in 2000, 2002 and 2004) stands to be adequate and enabling enough to meet the challenge of the time.
Establishment of the National Intoxicants Control Board:
The Board shall consist of the following members, namely:-
• (a) one Chairman nominated by the Government;
(b) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of External Affairs;
(c) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Internal Affairs;
(d) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Health;
(e) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Education;
(f) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Information;
(g) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Public Welfare and Women;
(h) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Finance; (i) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Planning;
(j) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Local Government;
(k) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Religion;
(l) the minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of Youth and Sports;
(m) secretary, Law Ministry;
(n) a reputed servant of society nominated by the Government;
(o) a reputed humanitarian nominated by the Government;
(p) a reputed intellectual nominated by the Government;
(q) a reputed journalist nominated by the Government;
(r) a reputed doctor or psychologist nominated by the Government;
(s) the supervisor who shall also be the secretary of the Board.
Intoxicants of the category A
1) Opium Poppy or sticky substances derived thereof.
2) Any refined, unrefined or prepared opium or any substance prepared with the help of opium.
3) Opium derivatives like Morphine, Codeine, Thebeine, Noscapine, Narcotine, Papavarine etc. and their salts.
4) Any substance containing more than 0, 2 percent Morphine.
5) Any intoxicant having the properties of Opium and fabricated with unnatural means like Pethidine, Meperdine, Methadone, Dextromoramide, Dihydrocodeine, Meperdine Fentanyl, Pentazocaine, Hydromorphine, Omnopone, Alphaprodine, Demeral, Oxycodone, Etrophine, Lofentanyl, Alfentanyl, Alphamethyl Fentanyl, 3-Methyl Fentanyl, Asscetrophine, Acetylmethadol, Alphacetyl-methadol, Betaprodine etc. .
6) Cocaine, or all Cocaine derivatives.
7) Any substance or any Cocaine salt containing more than 0, 1 percent Cocaine.
8) Tetrahydrocanbinal in whatever form, Cannabis resin, Charas, Hashish etc. .
9) Acetic anhydride, or any other ingredient indispensable in the production of Heroine, Morphine or Cocaine (if the acetic anhydride is found together with Heroine, Morphine or Cocaine).
10) Mescaline.
Intoxicants of the category B
1) Hemp plant, Herbal Cannabis, Bhang, Bhang plant or any substance prepared with the help of Hemp or Bhang.
2) 2) Any other plant ( except tobacco ) which can be used as an intoxicant.
3) 3) Alcohol, any kind of alcoholic liquor, rectified spirit, any medicine or liquor prepared with the help of rectified spirit, Beer, or any liquor with more than 5 % alcohol.
4) LSD, or any substance containing LSD.
5) Barbiturates or similiar substances.
6) Amphetamine, Methyl amphetamine or anything that contains Amphetamine.
7) Phencyclidine, Psilocybin, Nicocodine or anything that contains such substances.
8) Methaqualone or anything that contains Methaqualone.
Intoxicants of the category C
1) Toddy, Panjui etc. .
2) Denatured spirit or methylated spirit.
3) Chlordiazepoxied, Diazepam, Oxazepam, Lorazepam, Flurazepam, Clorozepate, Nitrazepam, Triazolam, Temazepam etc. .
4) Any sedative, tranquilizer or hypnotic medicine not mentioned under category B.
5) Any stimulant or depressive medicine not mentioned under category A or B.
9.Restriction on the production etc. of intoxicants except alcohol.
(1) It shall be interdicted to cultivate, produce, refine, carry, transport, import, export, supply, buy, sell, keep, preserve, store, exhibit or use any intoxicant except alcohol.
(2) It shall be interdicted to cultivate, produce, refine, carry, transport, import, export, supply, buy, sell, keep, preserve, store, exhibit or use any plant or substance serviceable in the production of intoxicants.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in subsection (1) and (2), where intoxicants, plants or substances referred to in the said two subsections are necessary for the production of any medicament approved under any Act, or for the carrying out of any scientific investigation, they may be-
a) produced, refined, imported, exported, supplied, bought, sold, carried, transported, stored and exhibited on the strenght of a licence granted under this Act;
b) used on the strength of a permit granted under this Act;
c) Carried or transported on the strength of a pass granted under this Act.
10. Provisions on the production etc. of alcohol.-
1) No person except a holder of a licence granted under this Act may
a) establish a distillary or brewery.
b) produce, refine, carry, transport, import, export, supply, buy, sell, keep, conserve, store, exhibit or use alcohol.
c) use alcohol as raw material in the production of medicine
2) No person except a holder of a permit granted under this Act may consume any alcohol; further shall no muslim be granted a permit to consume alcohol except that he can provide a qualifying certificate written by at least a civil surgeon or an assistant professor of the medicine depapartment of a medical college for medical reasons.
3) The qualifying certificate granted under subsection (1) shall contain the designation of the illness which necessitates the use of alcohol for its cure, as well as an attestation of the physician regarding the aforementioned necessity.
4) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, foreign citizens are allowed to consume alcohol in bars holding a licence.
5) The provisions of this section regarding the import, export, purchase, carrying, preservation or consumation of alcohol shall not apply to foreign citizens bearing a diplomatic passport, persons bearing a passbook granted by a custom officer, or persons which have been admitted in accordance with to the regular baggage rules.
11. Granting of licences etc
(1) A licence, permit or pass under this Act shall be granted, in the ways, forms, under the conditions and against the fees prescribed by law, by the Chief-Director or an officer authorized by him in this behalf.
(2) Any licence, permit or pass granted under subsection (1) shall be valid according to the term determined therein or from the date of its conferment untill the end of the current half-year.
Provided that, the provisions of this Act or the conditions of the licence not having been violated, the licence to run a laboratory, distillary or brewery may be renewed annually in exchange for fee.
12. Restrictions on the granting of licenses etc.
01. Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, no person shall be considered qualified for receiving a licence or permit under this Act, if
a) he has been convicted for a criminal offence involving moral turpitude and sentenced to imprisonment for a period of no less than three month and not been released within the last three years, or to a fine of no less than five hundred Takas and since the recovery of the fine three years have not yet passed;
b) he has been sentenced by a court for an offence under this Act.
c) he has violated the conditions of a licence or permit under this Act and the licence or permit referred to has, therefore, been declared invalid.
(2)Whoever cultivates intoxicants of the category A shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend from two to fifteen years and shall also be liable to fine.
(3) Whoever cultivates intoxicants of the categories A and B shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend from two to ten years and shall also be liable to fine.
(4) Whoever is guilty of an offence listed in the table of subsection (1) except serial number 11 shall be liable to fine in addition to the punishment provided for in that list.
(5) Whoever, after being convicted for an offence mentioned in this section and serving the sentence, again commits an offence under this section shall, not having been sentenced to death or lifelong imprisonment, be sentenced to twice the maximum punishment assigned to that offence.
2. Rules and Regulations for controlling poisons
Power of the State Government to regulate possession for sale and sale of any poison.
1) The State Government may by rule regulate within the whole or any part of the territories under its administration the possession for sale and the sale, whether wholesale or retail, of any specified poison.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for-
(a) The grant of licences to possess any specified poison for sale, wholesale or retail and fixing of the fee (if any) to be charged for such licences;
(b) The classes of persons to whom alone such licences may be granted;
(c) The classes of persons to whom alone any such poison may be sold;
(d) The maximum quantity of any such poison, which may be sold to any one person;
(e) The maintenance by vendors of any such poison of registers of sales, the particulars to be entered in such registers, and the inspection of the same;
(f) The safe custody of such poisons and the labelling of the vessels, packages or coverings in which any such poison is sold possession for sale; and
(g) The inspection and examination of any such poison when possessed for sale by any such vendor.
Penalty for unlawful importation, etc
• Whoever-
(a) Commits a breach of any rule made under Section 2, or
(b) Imports without a licence into India across customs frontier defined by the Central Government any poison the importation of which is for the time being restricted under Section 3, or
(c) Breaks any condition of licence for the importation of any poison granted to him under Section 3,
Shall be punishable, -
• (i) On a first conviction, with imprisonment for a term which may, extend to three months, or with fine which may extend to five hundred rupees or with both, and
(ii) On a second or subsequent conviction, with imprisonment for a term, which may extend to six months, or with fine, which may extend to one thousand, rupees, or with both.
Instrument required in Quality Control of Pharmaceutical Industry
01. Analytical Balance
An analytical balance is used to measure mass to a high degree of precision and accuracy. To some the analytical balance may simply be known as a set of scales, but an analytical balance is able to measure down to the ten thousandth of a gram. An analytical balance, also known as a precision balance, it most often found in a laboratory setting and is used only with the most meticulous of measurements. They require a draft-free location on a solid bench that is free of vibrations. Some modern balances have built-in calibration masses to maintain accuracy.
02. pH Meter
A pH meter is an electronic instrument used for measuring the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid (though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A probe is placed in a liquid, and it generates an electrical voltage that is converted to a logarithmic pH reading. The pH scale range is 1 to 14.
03. Conductivity Meter
A conductivity meter or electrical conductivity meter (EC meter) measures the electrical conductivity in a solution. Commonly used in hydroponics, aquaculture and freshwater systems to monitor the amount of nutrients, salts or impurities in the water.
04. Viscometer
A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called a rheometer is used. Viscometers only measure under one flow condition. The flow conditions must have a sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to be laminar flow.
At 20.00 degrees Celsius the viscosity of water is 1.002 mPa•s and its kinematic viscosity (ratio of viscosity to density) is 1.0038mm2/s. These values are used for calibrating certain types of viscometer.
05. Refractometer
A refractometer is a laboratory or field device for the measurement of an index of refraction (refractometry). A refractometer measures the extent to which light is bent (i.e. refracted) when it moves from air into a sample and is typically used to determine the index of refraction (aka refractive index or n) of a liquid sample.
The refractive index is a unitless number, between 1.3000 and 1.7000 for most compounds, and is normally determined to five digit precision.
06. Polarimeter
A polarimeter is a scientific instrument used to measure the angle of rotation caused by passing polarized light through an optically active substance. Anisotropic crystalline solids, and samples containing an excess of one enantiomer of a chiral molecule, can rotate the orientation of plane-polarized light. Such substances are said to have optical activity. Measurement of this change in polarization orientation is called polarimetry, and the measuring instrument is called a polarimeter. These measurements are useful for studying the structure of anisotropic materials, and for checking the purity of chiral mixtures.
Research applications for polarimetry are found in industry, research institutes and universities as a means of:
• Isolating and identifying unknowns crystallized from various solvents or separated by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
• Evaluating and characterizing optically active compounds by measuring their specific rotation and comparing this value with the theoretical values found in literature.
• Investigating kinetic reactions by measuring optical rotation as a function of time.
• Monitoring changes in concentration of an optically active component in a reaction mixture, as in enzymatic cleavage.
• Distinguishing between optical isomers.
07. IR Moisture Balance:
A high performance compact, dependable Infra-red Moisture Balance for measurement of moisture content of material not affected by radiation while losing water under of moisture exposure to Infra-red radiation. IR moisture balance is an accurate method for moisture content and dry weight analysis of a wide range of products and materials. Widely used for testing soils, Agriculture Soils, Chemicals raw materials, food, Pharmaceuticals, Plastic and similar materials.
08. KF Titrator
Karl Fischer titration is a classic titration method in analytical chemistry that uses coulometric or volumetric titration to determine trace amounts of water in a sample. It was invented in 1935 by the German chemist Karl Fischer.
Karl Fischer titration has established itself as a reference method for general use. KF titration
- is highly specific and precise
- covers a wide concentration range: from ppm up to 100%.
- has short determination times.
09. IR Spectrophoto Meter
It is used to measure the maximum absorption of infrared spectrum compound and the determination of IR radiation.
10. Ultraviolet-Visible spectrophotometer
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry (UV-Vis or UV/Vis) refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region. This means it uses light in the visible and adjacent (near-UV and near-infrared (NIR)) ranges.
UV/Vis spectroscopy is routinely used in analytical chemistry for the quantitative determination of different analytes, such as transition metal ions, highly conjugated organic compounds, and biological macromolecules. Determination is usually carried out in solutions.
• Solutions of transition metal ions can be colored (i.e., absorb visible light) because d electrons within the metal atoms can be excited from one electronic state to another. The colour of metal ion solutions is strongly affected by the presence of other species, such as certain anions or ligands. For instance, the colour of a dilute solution of copper sulfate is a very light blue; adding ammonia intensifies the colour and changes the wavelength of maximum absorption (λmax).
• While charge transfer complexes also give rise to colours, the colours are often too intense to be used for quantitative measurement.
11. High-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)
High-performance liquid chromatography (sometimes referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography), HPLC, is a chromatographic technique that can separate a mixture of compounds and is used in biochemistry and analytical chemistry to identify, quantify and purify the individual components of the mixture.
HPLC typically utilizes different types of stationary phases contained in columns, a pump that moves the mobile phase and sample components through the column, and a detector to provide a characteristic retention time for the analyte and an area count reflecting the amount of analyte passing through the detector.
12. Gas-Liquid chromatography (GLC):
It is a separation technique. It is widely used in chemistry. It is well suited for use in the petrochemical, environmental monitoring and remediation, and industrial chemical fields. It is also used extensively in chemistry research.
13. Electrolyte analyzer:
It is used for the determination of Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, Calcium, Lithium and pH. Thus it is known as Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE).
14. Titrator
It is a quantitative chemical analysis. It is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte. It is known as volumetric analysis.
15. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer
In analytical chemistry, atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique used to determine the concentration of a specific metal element in a sample. The technique can be used to analyze the concentration of over 70 different metals in a solution. It is a spectro-analytical procedure. It is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical elements. To determine the absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state.
16. Fluorescence spectrophotometer
Fluorescence occurs when a molecule absorbs light photons from the u.v.-visible light spectrum, known as excitation, and then rapidly emits light photons as it returns to it’s ground state. Fluorimetry characterizes the relationship between absorbed and emitted photons at specified wavelengths. It is a precise quantitative analytical technique that is inexpensive and easily mastered.
17. Particle counter
A particle counter is an instrument that detects and counts particles. By its very nature a particle counter is a single particle counter, meaning it detects and counts particles one at a time. The nature of particle counting is based upon either light scattering or light obscuration. A high energy light source is used to illuminate the particle as it passes through the detection chamber. The particle passes through the light source (typically a laser) and if light scattering is used, then the redirected light is detected by a photo detector. Or if light blocking (obscuration) is used the loss of light is detected. The amplitude of the light scattered or light blocked is measured and the particle is counted and tabulated into standardized counting bins. The image to the right shows a light scattering particle counter diagram.
18. Air particulate matter counter
19. DOP Test Apparatus
20. Flame photometer
A photoelectric flame photometer is a device used in inorganic chemical analysis to determine the concentration of certain metal ions, among them sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium. In principle, it is a controlled flame test with the intensity of the flame color quantified by photoelectric circuitry. Flame photometry is crude but cheap compared to flame emission spectroscopy, where the emitted light is analyzed with a monochromator. Its status is similar to that of the colorimeter (which uses filters) compared to the spectrophotometer (which uses a monochromator). It also has the range of metals that could be analysed and the limits of detection are also considered.
21. Osmometer
An Osmometer is a device for measuring the osmotic strength of a solution, colloid, or compound. Osmometers are useful for determining the concentration of dissolved salts or sugars in blood or urine samples. It is also useful in determining the molecular weight of unknown compounds and polymers.
In summary, Osmometry is a useful analytical tool, often overlooked, because it quickly measures everything in the sample rather than a specific constituent, but vitally important if the overall solution strength is critical.
22. Dissolution test apparatus
In the pharmaceutical industry, drug dissolution testing is routinely used to provide critical in vitro drug release information for both quality control purposes, i.e., to assess batch-to-batch consistency of solid oral dosage forms such as tablets, and drug development, i.e., to predict in vivo drug release profiles. The designs of the dissolution apparatuses and the ways of operating dissolution apparatuses have huge impacts on the hydrodynamics, thus the performances. Hydrodynamic studies in dissolution apparatuses were carried out by researchers over the past few years with both experimental methods and numerical modeling such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
23. Disintegration test apparatus
It is used to measure the tablet disintegration time and subsequent drug dissolution.
24. Friability Test Apparatus
Tablet friability test apparatus are used for determination of durability of tablets at the time of production. The apparatus is designed to provide the precise value of rate of abrasion and impact hardness of the tablets. Friability is important since it affects in particle size distribution of granules affecting compressibility into tablet, tablet weight variation, granule flowability. Friability is determined carrying out Tumbler Test or using Friability Tester ( Roche Friabilator ) and % loss is determined.
25. Hardness test facilities
It is to measure the hardness the tablet and it is essential to determine the disintegration and dissolution of drug and efficient of drug.
26. Leak test facilities
Leak testing is sometimes referred to as pressure testing or vacuum testing. There are many different forms of leak test methods that can be used, from the basic submersing of the test object under water in a dunk tank and watching for bubbles for leak location, to the highly accurate helium leak testing required for very tight leak limits. A commonly used leak test solution is air decay leak testing, this is a good, economical and quantifiable method of testing whether a product passes the specified leak limit, these type of solutions can range from manually loaded to fully automatic production test facilities.
27. Melting point apparatus
A melting point apparatus is a scientific instrument used to determine the melting point of a substance. Some types of melting point apparatuses include the Thiele tube, Fisher-Johns apparatus, Gallenkamp (Electronic) melting point apparatus and automatic melting point apparatus.
28. Muffle furnace
A muffle furnace (sometimes, retort furnace) in historical usage is a furnace in which the subject material is isolated from the fuel and all of the products of combustion including gases and flying ash. Today, a muffle furnace is (usually) a front-loading box-type oven or kiln for high-temperature applications such as fusing glass, creating enamel coatings, ceramics and soldering and brazing articles. They are also used in many research facilities, for example by chemists in order to determine what proportion of a sample is non-combustible and non-volatile (i.e., ash).
29. Hot air oven
The treatment by high temperature and hot have the functions on microbial oxidation, alterative protein and dielectric concentration that cause to poison. It destroys the cell protoplasm and course the microorganism to die, so this method can kill the whole microorganisms in regular heating time. It is use to sterilize glassware, metal, surgical instruments and also to sterilize non-aqueous thermo labile liquids & thermo labile powders.
30. Hot Water bath
Water baths are used in industrial clinical laboratories, academic facilities, government research laboratories environmental applications as well as food technology and wastewater plants. Because water retains heat so well, using water baths was one of the very first means of incubation. Applications include sample thawing, bacteriological examinations, warming reagents, coliform determinations and microbiological assays.
31. Ultrasonic Bath
An ultrasonic bath is a cleaning device that uses ultrasound (usually from 20–400 kHz) and an appropriate cleaning solvent (sometimes ordinary tap water) to clean delicate items. Ideal candidates for ultrasonic cleaning include small electronic parts, cables, rods, wires and detailed items, as well as objects made of glass, plastic, aluminum or ceramic. Industrial ultrasonic cleaners are used in the automotive, sporting, printing, marine, medical, pharmaceutical, electroplating, disk drive components, engineering and weapons industries. Ultrasonic baths are also used to experimentally determine the elastic constants of many anisotropic materials.
32. Hot plate
Hotplates are often used as an alternative to the bunsen burner. Some hotplates have a stirring mechanism as part of their design and allows for faster dissolving of some solids by heating and stirring at the same time.A hot plate is an adjustable heating source which is ideal for heating beakers, Erlenmeyer flasks, hot water baths, and other flat-bottomed containers. It is essentially an electric stove top that is used in the laboratory.
33. Magnetic Stirrer
A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar (also called "flea") immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a rotating magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel with the liquid. Magnetic stirrers often include a hot plate or some other means for heating the liquid. Magnetic stirrers are often used in chemistry and biology. They are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out (other than the simple bar magnet itself). They can be used inside hermetically closed vessels or systems, without the need for complicated rotary seals.
34. Vacuum evaporator:
This process is used industrially to make such food products as evaporated milk for milk chocolate, and tomato paste for ketchup. In the sugar industry the vacuum evaporation is used in the crystallization of sucrose solutions. Traditionally, this process was performed in batch mode, but nowadays also continuous vacuum pans are available.
35. Vacuum pumps:
They are used in many industrial and scientific processes including:
1. The production of most types of electric lamps, vacuum tubes,
2. Electron microscopy
3. Medical processes that require suction
4. Medical applications such as such Radiotherapy, Radiosurgery, Radiopharmacy
5. Analytical instrumentation to analyse gas, liquid, solid, surface and bio materials
6. Mass spectrometers to create an ultra high vacuum between the ion source and the detector
7. Ophthalmic coating
8. Freeze Drying
36. Thin layer chromatography (TLC):
It is a widely employed laboratory technique. It is used for faster and better separations. It is alos for better resolution.
37. Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a process known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an object's surface. Pyrometer is used for many industrial applications to measure non contact high temperature measurements. This is also useful for temperature measurement of molten iron & steel.
38. Reference standard:
It is a standardized substance It is used as a measurement base for similar substances. Where the exact active substances of a new drug are not known. A reference standard provides a calibrated level of biological effects against which new preparations of the drug can be compared.
39. Climate chamber:
It allows investigation of the effects of a gradient in temperature and relative humidity on a porous structure. It also used in measuring how much water it collects or releases.
An analytical balance is used to measure mass to a high degree of precision and accuracy. To some the analytical balance may simply be known as a set of scales, but an analytical balance is able to measure down to the ten thousandth of a gram. An analytical balance, also known as a precision balance, it most often found in a laboratory setting and is used only with the most meticulous of measurements. They require a draft-free location on a solid bench that is free of vibrations. Some modern balances have built-in calibration masses to maintain accuracy.
02. pH Meter
A pH meter is an electronic instrument used for measuring the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid (though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A probe is placed in a liquid, and it generates an electrical voltage that is converted to a logarithmic pH reading. The pH scale range is 1 to 14.
03. Conductivity Meter
A conductivity meter or electrical conductivity meter (EC meter) measures the electrical conductivity in a solution. Commonly used in hydroponics, aquaculture and freshwater systems to monitor the amount of nutrients, salts or impurities in the water.
04. Viscometer
A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called a rheometer is used. Viscometers only measure under one flow condition. The flow conditions must have a sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to be laminar flow.
At 20.00 degrees Celsius the viscosity of water is 1.002 mPa•s and its kinematic viscosity (ratio of viscosity to density) is 1.0038mm2/s. These values are used for calibrating certain types of viscometer.
05. Refractometer
A refractometer is a laboratory or field device for the measurement of an index of refraction (refractometry). A refractometer measures the extent to which light is bent (i.e. refracted) when it moves from air into a sample and is typically used to determine the index of refraction (aka refractive index or n) of a liquid sample.
The refractive index is a unitless number, between 1.3000 and 1.7000 for most compounds, and is normally determined to five digit precision.
06. Polarimeter
A polarimeter is a scientific instrument used to measure the angle of rotation caused by passing polarized light through an optically active substance. Anisotropic crystalline solids, and samples containing an excess of one enantiomer of a chiral molecule, can rotate the orientation of plane-polarized light. Such substances are said to have optical activity. Measurement of this change in polarization orientation is called polarimetry, and the measuring instrument is called a polarimeter. These measurements are useful for studying the structure of anisotropic materials, and for checking the purity of chiral mixtures.
Research applications for polarimetry are found in industry, research institutes and universities as a means of:
• Isolating and identifying unknowns crystallized from various solvents or separated by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
• Evaluating and characterizing optically active compounds by measuring their specific rotation and comparing this value with the theoretical values found in literature.
• Investigating kinetic reactions by measuring optical rotation as a function of time.
• Monitoring changes in concentration of an optically active component in a reaction mixture, as in enzymatic cleavage.
• Distinguishing between optical isomers.
07. IR Moisture Balance:
A high performance compact, dependable Infra-red Moisture Balance for measurement of moisture content of material not affected by radiation while losing water under of moisture exposure to Infra-red radiation. IR moisture balance is an accurate method for moisture content and dry weight analysis of a wide range of products and materials. Widely used for testing soils, Agriculture Soils, Chemicals raw materials, food, Pharmaceuticals, Plastic and similar materials.
08. KF Titrator
Karl Fischer titration is a classic titration method in analytical chemistry that uses coulometric or volumetric titration to determine trace amounts of water in a sample. It was invented in 1935 by the German chemist Karl Fischer.
Karl Fischer titration has established itself as a reference method for general use. KF titration
- is highly specific and precise
- covers a wide concentration range: from ppm up to 100%.
- has short determination times.
09. IR Spectrophoto Meter
It is used to measure the maximum absorption of infrared spectrum compound and the determination of IR radiation.
10. Ultraviolet-Visible spectrophotometer
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry (UV-Vis or UV/Vis) refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region. This means it uses light in the visible and adjacent (near-UV and near-infrared (NIR)) ranges.
UV/Vis spectroscopy is routinely used in analytical chemistry for the quantitative determination of different analytes, such as transition metal ions, highly conjugated organic compounds, and biological macromolecules. Determination is usually carried out in solutions.
• Solutions of transition metal ions can be colored (i.e., absorb visible light) because d electrons within the metal atoms can be excited from one electronic state to another. The colour of metal ion solutions is strongly affected by the presence of other species, such as certain anions or ligands. For instance, the colour of a dilute solution of copper sulfate is a very light blue; adding ammonia intensifies the colour and changes the wavelength of maximum absorption (λmax).
• While charge transfer complexes also give rise to colours, the colours are often too intense to be used for quantitative measurement.
11. High-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)
High-performance liquid chromatography (sometimes referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography), HPLC, is a chromatographic technique that can separate a mixture of compounds and is used in biochemistry and analytical chemistry to identify, quantify and purify the individual components of the mixture.
HPLC typically utilizes different types of stationary phases contained in columns, a pump that moves the mobile phase and sample components through the column, and a detector to provide a characteristic retention time for the analyte and an area count reflecting the amount of analyte passing through the detector.
12. Gas-Liquid chromatography (GLC):
It is a separation technique. It is widely used in chemistry. It is well suited for use in the petrochemical, environmental monitoring and remediation, and industrial chemical fields. It is also used extensively in chemistry research.
13. Electrolyte analyzer:
It is used for the determination of Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, Calcium, Lithium and pH. Thus it is known as Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE).
14. Titrator
It is a quantitative chemical analysis. It is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte. It is known as volumetric analysis.
15. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer
In analytical chemistry, atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique used to determine the concentration of a specific metal element in a sample. The technique can be used to analyze the concentration of over 70 different metals in a solution. It is a spectro-analytical procedure. It is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical elements. To determine the absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state.
16. Fluorescence spectrophotometer
Fluorescence occurs when a molecule absorbs light photons from the u.v.-visible light spectrum, known as excitation, and then rapidly emits light photons as it returns to it’s ground state. Fluorimetry characterizes the relationship between absorbed and emitted photons at specified wavelengths. It is a precise quantitative analytical technique that is inexpensive and easily mastered.
17. Particle counter
A particle counter is an instrument that detects and counts particles. By its very nature a particle counter is a single particle counter, meaning it detects and counts particles one at a time. The nature of particle counting is based upon either light scattering or light obscuration. A high energy light source is used to illuminate the particle as it passes through the detection chamber. The particle passes through the light source (typically a laser) and if light scattering is used, then the redirected light is detected by a photo detector. Or if light blocking (obscuration) is used the loss of light is detected. The amplitude of the light scattered or light blocked is measured and the particle is counted and tabulated into standardized counting bins. The image to the right shows a light scattering particle counter diagram.
18. Air particulate matter counter
19. DOP Test Apparatus
20. Flame photometer
A photoelectric flame photometer is a device used in inorganic chemical analysis to determine the concentration of certain metal ions, among them sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium. In principle, it is a controlled flame test with the intensity of the flame color quantified by photoelectric circuitry. Flame photometry is crude but cheap compared to flame emission spectroscopy, where the emitted light is analyzed with a monochromator. Its status is similar to that of the colorimeter (which uses filters) compared to the spectrophotometer (which uses a monochromator). It also has the range of metals that could be analysed and the limits of detection are also considered.
21. Osmometer
An Osmometer is a device for measuring the osmotic strength of a solution, colloid, or compound. Osmometers are useful for determining the concentration of dissolved salts or sugars in blood or urine samples. It is also useful in determining the molecular weight of unknown compounds and polymers.
In summary, Osmometry is a useful analytical tool, often overlooked, because it quickly measures everything in the sample rather than a specific constituent, but vitally important if the overall solution strength is critical.
22. Dissolution test apparatus
In the pharmaceutical industry, drug dissolution testing is routinely used to provide critical in vitro drug release information for both quality control purposes, i.e., to assess batch-to-batch consistency of solid oral dosage forms such as tablets, and drug development, i.e., to predict in vivo drug release profiles. The designs of the dissolution apparatuses and the ways of operating dissolution apparatuses have huge impacts on the hydrodynamics, thus the performances. Hydrodynamic studies in dissolution apparatuses were carried out by researchers over the past few years with both experimental methods and numerical modeling such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
23. Disintegration test apparatus
It is used to measure the tablet disintegration time and subsequent drug dissolution.
24. Friability Test Apparatus
Tablet friability test apparatus are used for determination of durability of tablets at the time of production. The apparatus is designed to provide the precise value of rate of abrasion and impact hardness of the tablets. Friability is important since it affects in particle size distribution of granules affecting compressibility into tablet, tablet weight variation, granule flowability. Friability is determined carrying out Tumbler Test or using Friability Tester ( Roche Friabilator ) and % loss is determined.
25. Hardness test facilities
It is to measure the hardness the tablet and it is essential to determine the disintegration and dissolution of drug and efficient of drug.
26. Leak test facilities
Leak testing is sometimes referred to as pressure testing or vacuum testing. There are many different forms of leak test methods that can be used, from the basic submersing of the test object under water in a dunk tank and watching for bubbles for leak location, to the highly accurate helium leak testing required for very tight leak limits. A commonly used leak test solution is air decay leak testing, this is a good, economical and quantifiable method of testing whether a product passes the specified leak limit, these type of solutions can range from manually loaded to fully automatic production test facilities.
27. Melting point apparatus
A melting point apparatus is a scientific instrument used to determine the melting point of a substance. Some types of melting point apparatuses include the Thiele tube, Fisher-Johns apparatus, Gallenkamp (Electronic) melting point apparatus and automatic melting point apparatus.
28. Muffle furnace
A muffle furnace (sometimes, retort furnace) in historical usage is a furnace in which the subject material is isolated from the fuel and all of the products of combustion including gases and flying ash. Today, a muffle furnace is (usually) a front-loading box-type oven or kiln for high-temperature applications such as fusing glass, creating enamel coatings, ceramics and soldering and brazing articles. They are also used in many research facilities, for example by chemists in order to determine what proportion of a sample is non-combustible and non-volatile (i.e., ash).
29. Hot air oven
The treatment by high temperature and hot have the functions on microbial oxidation, alterative protein and dielectric concentration that cause to poison. It destroys the cell protoplasm and course the microorganism to die, so this method can kill the whole microorganisms in regular heating time. It is use to sterilize glassware, metal, surgical instruments and also to sterilize non-aqueous thermo labile liquids & thermo labile powders.
30. Hot Water bath
Water baths are used in industrial clinical laboratories, academic facilities, government research laboratories environmental applications as well as food technology and wastewater plants. Because water retains heat so well, using water baths was one of the very first means of incubation. Applications include sample thawing, bacteriological examinations, warming reagents, coliform determinations and microbiological assays.
31. Ultrasonic Bath
An ultrasonic bath is a cleaning device that uses ultrasound (usually from 20–400 kHz) and an appropriate cleaning solvent (sometimes ordinary tap water) to clean delicate items. Ideal candidates for ultrasonic cleaning include small electronic parts, cables, rods, wires and detailed items, as well as objects made of glass, plastic, aluminum or ceramic. Industrial ultrasonic cleaners are used in the automotive, sporting, printing, marine, medical, pharmaceutical, electroplating, disk drive components, engineering and weapons industries. Ultrasonic baths are also used to experimentally determine the elastic constants of many anisotropic materials.
32. Hot plate
Hotplates are often used as an alternative to the bunsen burner. Some hotplates have a stirring mechanism as part of their design and allows for faster dissolving of some solids by heating and stirring at the same time.A hot plate is an adjustable heating source which is ideal for heating beakers, Erlenmeyer flasks, hot water baths, and other flat-bottomed containers. It is essentially an electric stove top that is used in the laboratory.
33. Magnetic Stirrer
A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar (also called "flea") immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a rotating magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel with the liquid. Magnetic stirrers often include a hot plate or some other means for heating the liquid. Magnetic stirrers are often used in chemistry and biology. They are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out (other than the simple bar magnet itself). They can be used inside hermetically closed vessels or systems, without the need for complicated rotary seals.
34. Vacuum evaporator:
This process is used industrially to make such food products as evaporated milk for milk chocolate, and tomato paste for ketchup. In the sugar industry the vacuum evaporation is used in the crystallization of sucrose solutions. Traditionally, this process was performed in batch mode, but nowadays also continuous vacuum pans are available.
35. Vacuum pumps:
They are used in many industrial and scientific processes including:
1. The production of most types of electric lamps, vacuum tubes,
2. Electron microscopy
3. Medical processes that require suction
4. Medical applications such as such Radiotherapy, Radiosurgery, Radiopharmacy
5. Analytical instrumentation to analyse gas, liquid, solid, surface and bio materials
6. Mass spectrometers to create an ultra high vacuum between the ion source and the detector
7. Ophthalmic coating
8. Freeze Drying
36. Thin layer chromatography (TLC):
It is a widely employed laboratory technique. It is used for faster and better separations. It is alos for better resolution.
37. Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a process known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an object's surface. Pyrometer is used for many industrial applications to measure non contact high temperature measurements. This is also useful for temperature measurement of molten iron & steel.
38. Reference standard:
It is a standardized substance It is used as a measurement base for similar substances. Where the exact active substances of a new drug are not known. A reference standard provides a calibrated level of biological effects against which new preparations of the drug can be compared.
39. Climate chamber:
It allows investigation of the effects of a gradient in temperature and relative humidity on a porous structure. It also used in measuring how much water it collects or releases.
Monday, May 16, 2011
Sunflower
Sunflower:
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus .L) is one of the few crop species that originated in North America (most originated in the Fertile Crescent, Asia or South or Central America). It is a twelve-monthly plant. The sunflower got its name from its huge fiery blooms, whose shape and image is often used to represent the sun. The sunflower has a rough, hairy stem, broad, coarsely toothed, irregular leaves and circular heads of flowers. The heads consist of 1,000-2,000 individual flowers joined together by a receptacle base.
Sunflower seeds were taken to Europe in the 16th century where, along with sunflower oil, they became a wide-spread cooking ingredient. Sunflower leaves can be used as a cattle food, while the stems contain a fiber which may be used in paper production.
History
Sunflower was probably primary introduced to Europe through Spain, and spread through Europe as a curiosity until it reached Russia where it was readily adapted. Selection for high oil in Russia began in 1860 and was mainly responsible for increasing oil content from 28% to almost 50%. The high-oil lines from Russia were reintroduced into the U.S. after World War II, which rekindled interest in the crop. However, it was the discovery of the male-sterile and restorer gene system that made hybrids feasible and increased commercial interest in the crop. Sunflower acreage is now moving westward into dryer regions; however, 85% of the North American sunflower seed is still produced in North and South Dakota and Minnesota.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Helianthus
Species: Helianthus annuus
Description
With sunflower, what is usually called the flower is actually a flower head (also known as a composite flower) of numerous florets, (small flowers) crowded together. The outer petal-bearing florets are the sterile ray florets and can be yellow, red, orange, or other colors. The florets inside the circular head are called disc florets, which mature into seeds.
Sunflowers most generally grow to heights between 1.5 and 3.5 m (5–12 ft). Scientific literature reports that a 12 m (40 ft), traditional, single-head, sunflower plant was grown in Padua in 1567. The same seed lot grew almost 8 m (26 ft) at other times and places, including Madrid. During the 20th century, heights of over 8 m have been achieved in both Netherlands and Ontario, Canada.
Heliotropism
A common misconception is that sunflowers track the sun. In fact, mature flower heads typically face east and do not move. The leaves and buds of young sunflowers do exhibit heliotropism (sun turning). Their direction changes from east to west during the course of a day. The leaf and flower head bud phototropism occurs while the leaf petioles and stems are still actively growing, but once mature, the movements stop. These movements involve the petioles bending or twisting during the day then unbending or untwisting at night.
Varieties of Sunflowers:
There are many types of sunflowers. And, gardeners like to grow a wide variety of them.
•Sunflowers are basically separated by size. The giant varieties grow over ten feet. Regular sunflowers typically grow from six to ten feet. Miniatures are gaining in popularity as borders. They are very popular in Asia, and grow two to four feet.
•Some varieties of sunflowers have one big head or flower. They are usually the giant sunflower varieties. Other large headed varieties, have a few much smaller heads that form on lower branches. Some varieties have multiple heads. These are typically midsized sunflowers, and are perfect for flower gardens in attracting birds.
•Sunflower seeds are usually a dark brown to black, or large, grey and white striped. The latter is the most popular for eating due, to their large size. Don't worry over selection. The birds will eat ample quantities of both, and so will you. Whether you are feeding the wildlife or not, there are plenty of wildlife that enjoy sunflower. They include all sorts of birds of course, squirrels, and rodents.
•Giant Sunflowers - Many people find growing these to be addicting. A giant sunflower can be either a very tall plant, or an enormous flowerhead.
•Tithonia, or Mexican Sunflower- Grow 4-6 feet tall, with daisy-like flowers. Blooms summer to fall.
Cultivation
To rapid grow, sunflowers need full sun. They grow most excellent in fertile, moist, well-drained soil with a lot of mulch. In commercial planting, seeds are planted 45 cm (1.5 ft) apart and 2.5 cm (1 in) deep.
Sunflower plants grow well in average to rich soils. They need to grow their roots deep and wide, to enable them to withstand strong winds. If you have a choice, sandy soils are not recommended, as they are easily uprooted in loose soil. Rich soil is important, when growing giant varieties.
Deep roots help sunflowers to withstand most droughts. They will benefit from a dose of fertilizer when you apply it to the rest of your garden. Apply extra phosphorus and potassium when the flower bud begins to develop, to promote bigger blooms.
Tip: If you are crowded for space, plant one or two sunflowers amidst your vine crops. One or two will not seriously shade the vines. Make sure not to plant them near their tap roots for the vines.
Harvesting:
Harvest sunflower seeds after the flower begin to die back, and most if not all, of the petals have fallen off. Pull out a seed and open it to see if it is full. Cut off the head, leaving a few inches of stalk. Hang the stalks to dry in a well ventilated area. Do not stack them in a box, as mold can develop during the drying process. As soon as the flowers have dried, extract the seeds by rubbing two flower heads together. They should come off of the flower head fairly easily. Sunflowers are also used as dried flowers in vases and for craft projects. They can be cut just before the flowers die off and dried over a few weeks. Miniature sunflowers make lovely fresh bouquets also. For craft projects, it is important to leave a sufficient amount of stalk.
Uses
Sunflowers “whole seed” (fruit) are sold as a snack food, after roasting in ovens, with or without salt added.
It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly in cooking and salads.
American Indians had various uses for sunflowers in the past, such as in bread, medical ointments, dyes and body paints [citation needed].
Sunflower oil
Sunflower oil, extracted from the seeds, is used for cooking, as carrier oil and to produce margarine and biodiesel, as it is cheaper than olive oil. Commercially available sunflower contain from 39 to 49% oil in the seed. In 1985-86, sunflower seed was the third largest source of vegetable oil worldwide, following soybean and palm. The growth of sunflower as an oilseed crop has rivaled that of soybean, with both increasing production over 6-fold since the 1930s. Sunflower accounts for about 14% of the world production of seed oils (6.9 million metric tons in 1985-86) and about 7% of the oilcake and meal produced from oilseeds. The oil accounts for 80% of the value of the sunflower crop, as contrasted with soybean which derives most of its value from the meal. Sunflower oil is generally considered a premium oil because of its light color, high level of unsaturated fatty acids and lack of linolenic acid, bland flavor and high smoke points. The primary fatty acids in the oil are oleic and linoleic (typically 90% unsaturated fatty acids), with the remainder consisting of palmitic and stearic saturated fatty acids. The primary use is as a salad and cooking oil or in margarine. In the USA, sunflower oils account for 8% or less of these markets, but in many sunflower-producing countries, sunflower is the preferred and the most commonly used oil.
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus .L) is one of the few crop species that originated in North America (most originated in the Fertile Crescent, Asia or South or Central America). It is a twelve-monthly plant. The sunflower got its name from its huge fiery blooms, whose shape and image is often used to represent the sun. The sunflower has a rough, hairy stem, broad, coarsely toothed, irregular leaves and circular heads of flowers. The heads consist of 1,000-2,000 individual flowers joined together by a receptacle base.
Sunflower seeds were taken to Europe in the 16th century where, along with sunflower oil, they became a wide-spread cooking ingredient. Sunflower leaves can be used as a cattle food, while the stems contain a fiber which may be used in paper production.
History
Sunflower was probably primary introduced to Europe through Spain, and spread through Europe as a curiosity until it reached Russia where it was readily adapted. Selection for high oil in Russia began in 1860 and was mainly responsible for increasing oil content from 28% to almost 50%. The high-oil lines from Russia were reintroduced into the U.S. after World War II, which rekindled interest in the crop. However, it was the discovery of the male-sterile and restorer gene system that made hybrids feasible and increased commercial interest in the crop. Sunflower acreage is now moving westward into dryer regions; however, 85% of the North American sunflower seed is still produced in North and South Dakota and Minnesota.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Helianthus
Species: Helianthus annuus
Description
With sunflower, what is usually called the flower is actually a flower head (also known as a composite flower) of numerous florets, (small flowers) crowded together. The outer petal-bearing florets are the sterile ray florets and can be yellow, red, orange, or other colors. The florets inside the circular head are called disc florets, which mature into seeds.
Sunflowers most generally grow to heights between 1.5 and 3.5 m (5–12 ft). Scientific literature reports that a 12 m (40 ft), traditional, single-head, sunflower plant was grown in Padua in 1567. The same seed lot grew almost 8 m (26 ft) at other times and places, including Madrid. During the 20th century, heights of over 8 m have been achieved in both Netherlands and Ontario, Canada.
Heliotropism
A common misconception is that sunflowers track the sun. In fact, mature flower heads typically face east and do not move. The leaves and buds of young sunflowers do exhibit heliotropism (sun turning). Their direction changes from east to west during the course of a day. The leaf and flower head bud phototropism occurs while the leaf petioles and stems are still actively growing, but once mature, the movements stop. These movements involve the petioles bending or twisting during the day then unbending or untwisting at night.
Varieties of Sunflowers:
There are many types of sunflowers. And, gardeners like to grow a wide variety of them.
•Sunflowers are basically separated by size. The giant varieties grow over ten feet. Regular sunflowers typically grow from six to ten feet. Miniatures are gaining in popularity as borders. They are very popular in Asia, and grow two to four feet.
•Some varieties of sunflowers have one big head or flower. They are usually the giant sunflower varieties. Other large headed varieties, have a few much smaller heads that form on lower branches. Some varieties have multiple heads. These are typically midsized sunflowers, and are perfect for flower gardens in attracting birds.
•Sunflower seeds are usually a dark brown to black, or large, grey and white striped. The latter is the most popular for eating due, to their large size. Don't worry over selection. The birds will eat ample quantities of both, and so will you. Whether you are feeding the wildlife or not, there are plenty of wildlife that enjoy sunflower. They include all sorts of birds of course, squirrels, and rodents.
•Giant Sunflowers - Many people find growing these to be addicting. A giant sunflower can be either a very tall plant, or an enormous flowerhead.
•Tithonia, or Mexican Sunflower- Grow 4-6 feet tall, with daisy-like flowers. Blooms summer to fall.
Cultivation
To rapid grow, sunflowers need full sun. They grow most excellent in fertile, moist, well-drained soil with a lot of mulch. In commercial planting, seeds are planted 45 cm (1.5 ft) apart and 2.5 cm (1 in) deep.
Sunflower plants grow well in average to rich soils. They need to grow their roots deep and wide, to enable them to withstand strong winds. If you have a choice, sandy soils are not recommended, as they are easily uprooted in loose soil. Rich soil is important, when growing giant varieties.
Deep roots help sunflowers to withstand most droughts. They will benefit from a dose of fertilizer when you apply it to the rest of your garden. Apply extra phosphorus and potassium when the flower bud begins to develop, to promote bigger blooms.
Tip: If you are crowded for space, plant one or two sunflowers amidst your vine crops. One or two will not seriously shade the vines. Make sure not to plant them near their tap roots for the vines.
Harvesting:
Harvest sunflower seeds after the flower begin to die back, and most if not all, of the petals have fallen off. Pull out a seed and open it to see if it is full. Cut off the head, leaving a few inches of stalk. Hang the stalks to dry in a well ventilated area. Do not stack them in a box, as mold can develop during the drying process. As soon as the flowers have dried, extract the seeds by rubbing two flower heads together. They should come off of the flower head fairly easily. Sunflowers are also used as dried flowers in vases and for craft projects. They can be cut just before the flowers die off and dried over a few weeks. Miniature sunflowers make lovely fresh bouquets also. For craft projects, it is important to leave a sufficient amount of stalk.
Uses
Sunflowers “whole seed” (fruit) are sold as a snack food, after roasting in ovens, with or without salt added.
It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly in cooking and salads.
American Indians had various uses for sunflowers in the past, such as in bread, medical ointments, dyes and body paints [citation needed].
Sunflower oil
Sunflower oil, extracted from the seeds, is used for cooking, as carrier oil and to produce margarine and biodiesel, as it is cheaper than olive oil. Commercially available sunflower contain from 39 to 49% oil in the seed. In 1985-86, sunflower seed was the third largest source of vegetable oil worldwide, following soybean and palm. The growth of sunflower as an oilseed crop has rivaled that of soybean, with both increasing production over 6-fold since the 1930s. Sunflower accounts for about 14% of the world production of seed oils (6.9 million metric tons in 1985-86) and about 7% of the oilcake and meal produced from oilseeds. The oil accounts for 80% of the value of the sunflower crop, as contrasted with soybean which derives most of its value from the meal. Sunflower oil is generally considered a premium oil because of its light color, high level of unsaturated fatty acids and lack of linolenic acid, bland flavor and high smoke points. The primary fatty acids in the oil are oleic and linoleic (typically 90% unsaturated fatty acids), with the remainder consisting of palmitic and stearic saturated fatty acids. The primary use is as a salad and cooking oil or in margarine. In the USA, sunflower oils account for 8% or less of these markets, but in many sunflower-producing countries, sunflower is the preferred and the most commonly used oil.
Sunday, March 27, 2011
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus)
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus)
Human immunodeficiency virus. The term "HIV" has been internationally accepted in the scientific community as the appropriate name for the retrovirus that is the causative agent of AIDS.
HIV is a virus which attacks the immune system and prevents it from functioning. It can be transferred from human to human via blood and bodily fluids.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which progressive letdown of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to prosper. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. The four most important routes of transmission are unsafe sex, unhygienic needles, breast milk, and transmission from an infected mother to her baby at birth (perinatal transmission).
HIV infection in humans is considered pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO). Nevertheless, satisfaction about HIV may play a key role in HIV risk. From its discovery in 1981 to 2006, AIDS killed over 25 million people. HIV infects about 0.6% of the world's population. In 2009, AIDS claimed an estimated 1.8 million lives, down from a global peak of 2.1 million in 2004. In the order of 260,000 children died of AIDS in 2009. A disproportionate number of AIDS deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa, retarding economic growth and growing poverty. In 2005, it was estimated that HIV would infect 90 million people in Africa, resulting in a minimum estimate of 18 million orphans.
History of HIV
The history of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) dates back to 1981, when homosexual men with symptoms of a disease that now are considered typical of AIDS were primary described in Los Angeles and New York. The men had an unusual type of lung infection (pneumonia) called Pneumocystis carinii (now known as Pneumocystis jiroveci) pneumonia (PCP) and rare skin tumors called Kaposi's sarcomas. The patients were renowned to have a severe reduction in a type of cell in the blood (CD4 cells) that is a vital part of the immune system. These cells, often referred to as T cells, help the body fight infections. Shortly thereafter, this disease was familiar throughout the United States, Western Europe, and Africa. In 1983, researchers in the United States and France described the virus that causes AIDS, now known as HIV, belonging to the group of viruses called retroviruses. While HIV infection is required to develop AIDS, the actual definition of AIDS is the development of a low CD4 cell count (<200 cells/mm3) or any one of a long list of complications of HIV infection ranging from a variety of so-called "opportunistic infections," cancers, neurologic symptoms, and wasting syndromes.
AIDS
When CD4+ T cell numbers decline lower a dangerous level of 200 cells per µL, cell-mediated immunity is vanished, and infections with a variety of opportunistic microbes appear. The first symptoms often include moderate and unexplained weight loss, recurring respiratory tract infections (such as sinusitis, bronchitis, otitis media, pharyngitis), prostatitis, skin rashes, and oral ulcerations.
Common opportunistic infections and tumors, the greater parts of which are normally controlled by robust CD4+ T cell-mediated immunity then start to affect the patient. Typically, resistance is vanished early on to oral Candida species and to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which leads to an increased susceptibility to oral candidiasis (thrush) and tuberculosis. Later, reactivation of latent herpes viruses may cause worsening recurrences of herpes simplex eruptions, shingles, Epstein-Barr virus-induced B-cell lymphomas, or Kaposi's sarcoma.
HIV spread (transmitted)
HIV is present to changeable degrees in the blood and genital secretions of virtually all individuals infected with HIV, regardless of whether or not they have symptoms. The spread of HIV can occur when these secretions come in contact with tissues such as those lining the vagina, anal area, mouth, eyes (the mucus membranes), or with a break in the skin, such as from a cut or puncture by a needle. The most common ways in which HIV is spreading throughout the world include sexual contact, sharing needles, and by transmission from infected mothers to their newborns during pregnancy, labor (the delivery process), or breastfeeding. (See the section below on treatment during pregnancy for a discussion on reducing the risk of transmission to the newborn.)
Sexual transmission of HIV has been described from men to men, men to women, women to men, and women to women through vaginal, anal, and oral sex. The best way to avoid sexual transmission is abstinence from sex until it is certain that both partners in a monogamous relationship are not HIV-infected. Because the HIV antibody test can take months to turn positive after infection occurs, both partners would need to investigation negative for at least 12 and up to 24 weeks after their last potential exposure to HIV.
The spread of HIV by exposure to infected blood usually results from sharing needles, as in those used for illicit drugs. HIV also can be spread by sharing needles for anabolic steroids to increase muscle, tattooing, and body piercing. To prevent the spread of HIV, as well as other diseases including hepatitis, needles should never be shared. At the beginning of the HIV epidemic, many individuals acquired HIV infection from blood transfusions or blood products, such as those used for hemophiliacs. At present, however, because blood is tested for both antibodies to HIV and the actual virus before transfusion, the risk of acquiring HIV from a blood transfusion in the United States is extremely small and is considered insignificant.
There is small evidence that HIV can be transferred by casual exposure, as might occur in a household setting. For example, unless there are open sores or blood in the mouth, kissing is generally considered not to be a risk factor for transmitting HIV. This is because saliva, in contrast to genital secretions, has been shown to contain very little HIV. Still, theoretical risks are associated with the sharing of toothbrushes and shaving razors because they can cause bleeding, and blood can contain large amounts of HIV. Consequently, these items should not be shared with infected people. Similarly, without sexual exposure or direct contact with blood, there is little if any risk of HIV contagion in the workplace or classroom.
Types of treatment
There are five main groups of drugs involved:
Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)
Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Protease inhibitors
Fusion inhibitors.
Usually, three different drugs from at least two of these groups are taken together, two to four times a day. Some tablets now contain two or three dissimilar drugs. The advantage of these combination drugs is that people do not need to take as many tablets each day.
How treatment works
When the HIV virus gets into a body cell, it normally starts to make copies of itself. These copies then spread out of that cell and into another. Drug treatments control the virus by interfering with the chemicals it uses to make copies of itself inside the body cells. The fusion inhibitors stop the HIV binding onto a new cell so it can no longer enter.
Over time, the virus can become resistant to the drugs, which means that they won’t work as well. The treatment may then have to be changed to a different combination of drugs.
People taking drug treatment for HIV will probably need to take it for the rest of their lives. Stopping drug treatment, even for little periods of time, can cause the virus to become resistant to those drugs. It is not recommended that anyone interrupt drug treatment without medical advice.
Drug treatment does not work well for everyone. Even when it is working well, it cannot control all of the virus, so the person will still have HIV in their body.
Treatment does not stop someone with HIV from being able to pass on the virus through unprotected sex or sharing needles or injecting equipment.
Human immunodeficiency virus. The term "HIV" has been internationally accepted in the scientific community as the appropriate name for the retrovirus that is the causative agent of AIDS.
HIV is a virus which attacks the immune system and prevents it from functioning. It can be transferred from human to human via blood and bodily fluids.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which progressive letdown of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to prosper. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. The four most important routes of transmission are unsafe sex, unhygienic needles, breast milk, and transmission from an infected mother to her baby at birth (perinatal transmission).
HIV infection in humans is considered pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO). Nevertheless, satisfaction about HIV may play a key role in HIV risk. From its discovery in 1981 to 2006, AIDS killed over 25 million people. HIV infects about 0.6% of the world's population. In 2009, AIDS claimed an estimated 1.8 million lives, down from a global peak of 2.1 million in 2004. In the order of 260,000 children died of AIDS in 2009. A disproportionate number of AIDS deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa, retarding economic growth and growing poverty. In 2005, it was estimated that HIV would infect 90 million people in Africa, resulting in a minimum estimate of 18 million orphans.
History of HIV
The history of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) dates back to 1981, when homosexual men with symptoms of a disease that now are considered typical of AIDS were primary described in Los Angeles and New York. The men had an unusual type of lung infection (pneumonia) called Pneumocystis carinii (now known as Pneumocystis jiroveci) pneumonia (PCP) and rare skin tumors called Kaposi's sarcomas. The patients were renowned to have a severe reduction in a type of cell in the blood (CD4 cells) that is a vital part of the immune system. These cells, often referred to as T cells, help the body fight infections. Shortly thereafter, this disease was familiar throughout the United States, Western Europe, and Africa. In 1983, researchers in the United States and France described the virus that causes AIDS, now known as HIV, belonging to the group of viruses called retroviruses. While HIV infection is required to develop AIDS, the actual definition of AIDS is the development of a low CD4 cell count (<200 cells/mm3) or any one of a long list of complications of HIV infection ranging from a variety of so-called "opportunistic infections," cancers, neurologic symptoms, and wasting syndromes.
AIDS
When CD4+ T cell numbers decline lower a dangerous level of 200 cells per µL, cell-mediated immunity is vanished, and infections with a variety of opportunistic microbes appear. The first symptoms often include moderate and unexplained weight loss, recurring respiratory tract infections (such as sinusitis, bronchitis, otitis media, pharyngitis), prostatitis, skin rashes, and oral ulcerations.
Common opportunistic infections and tumors, the greater parts of which are normally controlled by robust CD4+ T cell-mediated immunity then start to affect the patient. Typically, resistance is vanished early on to oral Candida species and to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which leads to an increased susceptibility to oral candidiasis (thrush) and tuberculosis. Later, reactivation of latent herpes viruses may cause worsening recurrences of herpes simplex eruptions, shingles, Epstein-Barr virus-induced B-cell lymphomas, or Kaposi's sarcoma.
HIV spread (transmitted)
HIV is present to changeable degrees in the blood and genital secretions of virtually all individuals infected with HIV, regardless of whether or not they have symptoms. The spread of HIV can occur when these secretions come in contact with tissues such as those lining the vagina, anal area, mouth, eyes (the mucus membranes), or with a break in the skin, such as from a cut or puncture by a needle. The most common ways in which HIV is spreading throughout the world include sexual contact, sharing needles, and by transmission from infected mothers to their newborns during pregnancy, labor (the delivery process), or breastfeeding. (See the section below on treatment during pregnancy for a discussion on reducing the risk of transmission to the newborn.)
Sexual transmission of HIV has been described from men to men, men to women, women to men, and women to women through vaginal, anal, and oral sex. The best way to avoid sexual transmission is abstinence from sex until it is certain that both partners in a monogamous relationship are not HIV-infected. Because the HIV antibody test can take months to turn positive after infection occurs, both partners would need to investigation negative for at least 12 and up to 24 weeks after their last potential exposure to HIV.
The spread of HIV by exposure to infected blood usually results from sharing needles, as in those used for illicit drugs. HIV also can be spread by sharing needles for anabolic steroids to increase muscle, tattooing, and body piercing. To prevent the spread of HIV, as well as other diseases including hepatitis, needles should never be shared. At the beginning of the HIV epidemic, many individuals acquired HIV infection from blood transfusions or blood products, such as those used for hemophiliacs. At present, however, because blood is tested for both antibodies to HIV and the actual virus before transfusion, the risk of acquiring HIV from a blood transfusion in the United States is extremely small and is considered insignificant.
There is small evidence that HIV can be transferred by casual exposure, as might occur in a household setting. For example, unless there are open sores or blood in the mouth, kissing is generally considered not to be a risk factor for transmitting HIV. This is because saliva, in contrast to genital secretions, has been shown to contain very little HIV. Still, theoretical risks are associated with the sharing of toothbrushes and shaving razors because they can cause bleeding, and blood can contain large amounts of HIV. Consequently, these items should not be shared with infected people. Similarly, without sexual exposure or direct contact with blood, there is little if any risk of HIV contagion in the workplace or classroom.
Types of treatment
There are five main groups of drugs involved:
Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)
Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Protease inhibitors
Fusion inhibitors.
Usually, three different drugs from at least two of these groups are taken together, two to four times a day. Some tablets now contain two or three dissimilar drugs. The advantage of these combination drugs is that people do not need to take as many tablets each day.
How treatment works
When the HIV virus gets into a body cell, it normally starts to make copies of itself. These copies then spread out of that cell and into another. Drug treatments control the virus by interfering with the chemicals it uses to make copies of itself inside the body cells. The fusion inhibitors stop the HIV binding onto a new cell so it can no longer enter.
Over time, the virus can become resistant to the drugs, which means that they won’t work as well. The treatment may then have to be changed to a different combination of drugs.
People taking drug treatment for HIV will probably need to take it for the rest of their lives. Stopping drug treatment, even for little periods of time, can cause the virus to become resistant to those drugs. It is not recommended that anyone interrupt drug treatment without medical advice.
Drug treatment does not work well for everyone. Even when it is working well, it cannot control all of the virus, so the person will still have HIV in their body.
Treatment does not stop someone with HIV from being able to pass on the virus through unprotected sex or sharing needles or injecting equipment.
Friday, March 25, 2011
Gemifloxacin
Gemifloxacin
Gemifloxacin mesylate is a synthetic broad spectrum antibacterial for oral administration. Gemifloxacin a compound related to the fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics is available as the mesylate salt in the sesquihydrate form.
Mode of action
Gemifloxacin is a DNA gyrase inhibitor and also inhibits topoisomerase IV. DNA gyrase (topoisomerase IV) is an essential bacterial enzyme that maintains the superhelical structure of DNA. DNA gyrase is required for DNA replication and transcription, DNA repair, recombination, and transposition, bactericidal.
Pharmacokinetics
Gemifloxacin is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract with absolute bioavailability of about 71%. Peak plasma concentrations occur 0.5 to 2 hours after an oral dose. Gemifloxacin is widely distributed into body tissues including the bronchial mucosa and lungs, and is about 55 to75% bound to plasma proteins. It undergoes limited hepatic metabolism and has an elimination half life of about 7 hours. It excreted as unchanged drug and metabolites in the faeces and urine. Urinary excretion is by active tubular secretion and is reduce by probenecid. Distribution into milk has been found in rats.
Indications
Gemifloxacin is indicated for the treatment of infections caused by susceptible of the designated microorganisms in the condition listed below.
• Acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, or Moraxella catarrhalis.
• Community-acquired pneumonia (of mild to moderate severity) caused by Streptococcus pneumonia (including multi- drug resistant strains [MDRSP]), Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamybia pneumoniae, or Klebsiella pneumoniae.
• Acute sinusitis
• Uncomplicated urinary tract infections
• Acute pyelonephritis
Contraindication
Gemifloxacin is contraindicated in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to gemifloxacin, floroquinolone antibiotic agents, or any of the product components.
Use in pregnancy and Lactation
There are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Reports of arthropathy (observed in immature animals and reported rarely in humans) have limited the use of fluoroquinolones in pregnancy. Reversible fatal growth retardation was observed with gemifloxacin in some animal studies. Based on limited data, quinolones are not expected to be a major human teratogen. Although quinolone antibiotics should not be used as first-line agents during pregnancy, when considering treatment for life-threatening infection and/or prolonged duration of therapy, the potential risk to the fetus must be balanced against the severity of the potential illness. Excretion in breast milk is unknown. So, Gemifloxacin is not recommended in lactating women.
Side Effect
There are many serious side effects of Gemifloxacin:
1. fast or pounding heartbeats
2. feeling light-headed, fainting, drowsiness, dizziness
3. seizure (convulsions)
4. confusion, and feeling restless or anxious
5. a red, blistering, peeling skin rash, vaginal itching or discharge & mild skin itching
6. urinating less than usual or not at all
7. tremors or shaking
8. easy bruising or bleeding, unusual weakness
9. nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, low fever, loss of appetite, dark urine, clay-colored stools, jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes)
10. sudden pain or swelling near your joints (especially in your arm or ankle)
11. numbness, tingling, or weakness in any part of your body
12. diarrhea that is watery or bloody
Drug Interaction
May interact with blood thinners (e.g. warfarin), corticosteroids (e.g. prednisone), diabetes medications (e.g. insulin), probenecid, live vaccines. Report the use of drug which might increase seizure risk (decrease seizure threshold) when combined with Gemifloxacin such as phenothiazines (e.g. thioridazine), tricyclic antidepressants (e.g. amitriptyline), isoniazid (INH) or theophylline.
Except those drugs more over have another drugs which are interact with previous mentions drugs:
• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
• Medications for heart arrhythmias
• Erythromycin
• Antipsychotics
• Water pills
• Steroid medications
• Antacids
• Sucralfate
• Didanosine
Gemifloxacin may interact with other medications or substances that are not listed above. In order to avoid potentially hazardous interactions, patients should talk with their doctor about the use of any other medicines, vitamins or supplements before beginning treatment with gemifloxacin.
Precautions
• Before taking Gemifloxacin, caution should be taken if you are allergic or have had a severe reaction to gemifloxacin or any other quinolone or fluoroquinolone antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, levofloxacin, lomefloxacin , moxifloxacin; any other medications.
• You are taking antacids containing aluminum hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide or vitamin or mineral supplements that contain iron, magnesium, or zinc, take these medications 3 hours before or 2 hours after you take gemifloxacin.
• Before using this medication, tells your doctor about rain or nervous system disorder if any (e.g. Cerebral arteriosclerosis, tumors increased intracranial pressure), heart problems (e.g. Cardiomyopathy, slow heart rate, QTc prolongation), history of seizures kidney disease, muscle/joint/tendon problems.
• Gemifloxacin may make your skin sensitive to sunlight or ultraviolet light. So avoid prolong sun exposure.
• This medication should be used only when clearly needed during pregnancy. Consult your doctor before breast feeding.
Overdosage
Any signs or symptoms of overdosage should be treated symptomatically. No specific antidote is known. In the event of acute oral overdosage, the stomach should be emptied by inducing vomiting or by gastric lavage; the patient should be carefully observed and treated symptomatically with appropriate hydration maintained. Hemodialysis removes approximately 20 to 30% of an oral dose of gemifloxacin from plasma.
Mortality occurred at oral gemifloxacin doses of 1600 mg/kg in rats and 320 mg/kg in mice. The minimum lethal intravenous doses in these species were 160 and 80 mg/kg, respectively. Toxic signs after administration of a single high oral dose (400 mg/kg) of gemifloxacin to rodents included ataxia, lethargy, piloerection, tremor, and clonic convulsions.
Gemifloxacin mesylate is a synthetic broad spectrum antibacterial for oral administration. Gemifloxacin a compound related to the fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics is available as the mesylate salt in the sesquihydrate form.
Mode of action
Gemifloxacin is a DNA gyrase inhibitor and also inhibits topoisomerase IV. DNA gyrase (topoisomerase IV) is an essential bacterial enzyme that maintains the superhelical structure of DNA. DNA gyrase is required for DNA replication and transcription, DNA repair, recombination, and transposition, bactericidal.
Pharmacokinetics
Gemifloxacin is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract with absolute bioavailability of about 71%. Peak plasma concentrations occur 0.5 to 2 hours after an oral dose. Gemifloxacin is widely distributed into body tissues including the bronchial mucosa and lungs, and is about 55 to75% bound to plasma proteins. It undergoes limited hepatic metabolism and has an elimination half life of about 7 hours. It excreted as unchanged drug and metabolites in the faeces and urine. Urinary excretion is by active tubular secretion and is reduce by probenecid. Distribution into milk has been found in rats.
Indications
Gemifloxacin is indicated for the treatment of infections caused by susceptible of the designated microorganisms in the condition listed below.
• Acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, or Moraxella catarrhalis.
• Community-acquired pneumonia (of mild to moderate severity) caused by Streptococcus pneumonia (including multi- drug resistant strains [MDRSP]), Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamybia pneumoniae, or Klebsiella pneumoniae.
• Acute sinusitis
• Uncomplicated urinary tract infections
• Acute pyelonephritis
Contraindication
Gemifloxacin is contraindicated in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to gemifloxacin, floroquinolone antibiotic agents, or any of the product components.
Use in pregnancy and Lactation
There are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Reports of arthropathy (observed in immature animals and reported rarely in humans) have limited the use of fluoroquinolones in pregnancy. Reversible fatal growth retardation was observed with gemifloxacin in some animal studies. Based on limited data, quinolones are not expected to be a major human teratogen. Although quinolone antibiotics should not be used as first-line agents during pregnancy, when considering treatment for life-threatening infection and/or prolonged duration of therapy, the potential risk to the fetus must be balanced against the severity of the potential illness. Excretion in breast milk is unknown. So, Gemifloxacin is not recommended in lactating women.
Side Effect
There are many serious side effects of Gemifloxacin:
1. fast or pounding heartbeats
2. feeling light-headed, fainting, drowsiness, dizziness
3. seizure (convulsions)
4. confusion, and feeling restless or anxious
5. a red, blistering, peeling skin rash, vaginal itching or discharge & mild skin itching
6. urinating less than usual or not at all
7. tremors or shaking
8. easy bruising or bleeding, unusual weakness
9. nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, low fever, loss of appetite, dark urine, clay-colored stools, jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes)
10. sudden pain or swelling near your joints (especially in your arm or ankle)
11. numbness, tingling, or weakness in any part of your body
12. diarrhea that is watery or bloody
Drug Interaction
May interact with blood thinners (e.g. warfarin), corticosteroids (e.g. prednisone), diabetes medications (e.g. insulin), probenecid, live vaccines. Report the use of drug which might increase seizure risk (decrease seizure threshold) when combined with Gemifloxacin such as phenothiazines (e.g. thioridazine), tricyclic antidepressants (e.g. amitriptyline), isoniazid (INH) or theophylline.
Except those drugs more over have another drugs which are interact with previous mentions drugs:
• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
• Medications for heart arrhythmias
• Erythromycin
• Antipsychotics
• Water pills
• Steroid medications
• Antacids
• Sucralfate
• Didanosine
Gemifloxacin may interact with other medications or substances that are not listed above. In order to avoid potentially hazardous interactions, patients should talk with their doctor about the use of any other medicines, vitamins or supplements before beginning treatment with gemifloxacin.
Precautions
• Before taking Gemifloxacin, caution should be taken if you are allergic or have had a severe reaction to gemifloxacin or any other quinolone or fluoroquinolone antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, levofloxacin, lomefloxacin , moxifloxacin; any other medications.
• You are taking antacids containing aluminum hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide or vitamin or mineral supplements that contain iron, magnesium, or zinc, take these medications 3 hours before or 2 hours after you take gemifloxacin.
• Before using this medication, tells your doctor about rain or nervous system disorder if any (e.g. Cerebral arteriosclerosis, tumors increased intracranial pressure), heart problems (e.g. Cardiomyopathy, slow heart rate, QTc prolongation), history of seizures kidney disease, muscle/joint/tendon problems.
• Gemifloxacin may make your skin sensitive to sunlight or ultraviolet light. So avoid prolong sun exposure.
• This medication should be used only when clearly needed during pregnancy. Consult your doctor before breast feeding.
Overdosage
Any signs or symptoms of overdosage should be treated symptomatically. No specific antidote is known. In the event of acute oral overdosage, the stomach should be emptied by inducing vomiting or by gastric lavage; the patient should be carefully observed and treated symptomatically with appropriate hydration maintained. Hemodialysis removes approximately 20 to 30% of an oral dose of gemifloxacin from plasma.
Mortality occurred at oral gemifloxacin doses of 1600 mg/kg in rats and 320 mg/kg in mice. The minimum lethal intravenous doses in these species were 160 and 80 mg/kg, respectively. Toxic signs after administration of a single high oral dose (400 mg/kg) of gemifloxacin to rodents included ataxia, lethargy, piloerection, tremor, and clonic convulsions.
Wednesday, February 2, 2011
Pizotifen
Pizotifen
Pizotifen is a tricyclic compound having antiserotoninergic and antihistaminergic effects together with a weak anticholinergic action, but a little or no activity on kinins or their liberators. At low concentration Pizotifen may potentiate the actions of serotonin.
Mechanism of action
Pizotifen, like all triptans, is a serotonin agonist, which means it acts like serotonin. Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytriptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter that regulates communication between nerve cells and the widening of blood vessels. It acts by activating proteins on nerve endings and blood vessels, called 5-HT receptors. Pizotifen also activates these receptors. Activation prevents the release of chemicals that mediate pain and narrows blood vessels, which reduces their leakiness.
Pharmacology
Pizotifen is characterized by its polyvalent inhibition effect on biogenic amines, such as serotonin, histamine and tryptamine. Pizotifen also possesses appetite stimulation properties.
Indication
Pizotifen is indicated for the prophylactic treatment of vascular headaches of migraine types such classical migraine, common migraine, and cluster headaches. It is also indicated in appetite loss of somatic or psychogenic organ in underweight patients as an adjuvant to treatment of the underlying condition, such as infection or parasitic diseases (including during convalescence), chronic diarrhea, anorexia nervosa, or depressive states in the elderly and mood disturbances in the elderly.
Contraindication
It is Contraindication in patient with `a history of hypersensitivity to any components of the product. Although its achlinergic activity it’s relatively weak, Pizotifen should be probably not be administered in the presence of narrow-angle glaucoma or prostate hypertrophy. Pizotifen should not be given in to children under 2 years of age.
Side effect
The most commonly occurring side effect are drowsiness and an increase in appetite, which may lead to increase in body weight. Other side effects such as dizziness, dry mouth nausea and constipation have been reported infrequency. In children, CNS stimulation may occur.
Pregnancy and lactation
As clinical data with Pizotifen in Pregnancy is very limited, although no ill effects have been reported. The drug should therefore only be given during pregnancy if the potential benefit to mother justifies the potential risk to the fetus. The safety of Pizotifen during lactation has not been established, so mother should avoid taking it when breast feeling.
Caution
Urinary retention, renal impairment, pregnancy and beast feeding should be taken in consideration. Drowsiness may affect the performance of skilled task (e.g. Dividing), effect of alcohol is enhances.
Precaution
Patient should be warned about the possibility of drowsiness and its significance in the driving of vehicle and the operation of machinery.
Drug interaction
Tolerance to alcohol may be lowered. Prolong the drowsiness that occurs as adverse effect of concurrently used tranquilizers, hypnotics and antidepressant. It should not be used in patients receiving monoamine oxidize inhibitors.
Dose and Administration
The recommended dose is as followings:
Adult: the initial dose is 1.5mg daily; this may be taken at bedtime as a single dose or in three divided dose. Dosage can be adjusted according to the individual patient requirement up to a maximum of 4.5mg daily. Up to 3mg may be given as a single daily dose.
Children: up to 1.5mg daily, usually as a divide dose. Use of 1.5mg at a time is not recommended, but up to 1mg can be given as a single daily dose at night. Children below two years of age should not be given Pizotifen.
Or, a directed by the registered physician.
Pharmaceuticals precaution
Store in a cool dry place protected from light. Keep out of reach of children.
Market competitors
Serial no.
|
Company Name
|
Brand name
|
Pack size
|
Unite per price
|
Selling price(per year)
|
01
|
Square
|
Migranil
|
Box containing 5×10 tablet Or 5×1 tablets in blister pack
|
3tk
|
TK. 22,751,915
|
02
|
Bexcimco
|
Avidro
|
Box containing 1×10 tablet Or 10×10 tablets in blister pack
|
3tk
|
TK. 5,938,344 tk
|
03
|
Drug International Ltd.
|
De-fen
|
Box containing 10×10 tablet Or 1×10 tablets in blister pack
|
2tk
|
TK. 6,580,221
|
04
|
Aristopharma Ltd.
|
Zofen
|
Box containing 10×10 tablet in blister pack
|
3tk
|
TK. 18,752,830
|
05
|
Opsonin Pharm
|
Pifen
|
Box containing 5×10 tablet in blister pack
|
2tk
|
TK. 2,503,136
|
SWOT analysis:
Seiral no.
|
Strength(Pizotifen)
|
Weakness(Rizatriptan)
|
01
|
It required low dose of Pizotifen as 1.5mg daily for acute treatment. So it active therapeutic effect at low dose
|
Rizatriptan required high dose as 5mg or 10mg daily for acute treatment it’s given low at high dose.
|
02
|
Children above 2 years it should be given
|
It is not recommended in children.
|
03
|
The bioavailability of this drug is 75%
|
The bioavailability of this drug is 45%
|
04
|
About 90% bound to plasma proteins. Peak plasma concentrations occur about 5 hr after a single oral dose.
|
About 5% bound to plasma proteins. Peak plasma concentrations occur about 10-15 hr after a single oral dose.
|
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